Installation — business terrible - 1 part
September 8th, 2015
Naturally, installation of the hydromassage equipment it is necessary to entrust specialists, othe[...]
Direct applied systems do not incorporate the use of rigid board insulation and are not within the scope of this book. Also polymer – based, the synthetic stucco is applied to a variety of water-durable substrates such as concrete masonry units and concrete.
There are two fundamental wall construction concepts of EIFS that will be discussed here. These are known as the barrier-type method and the drainable type. Although variations exist between proprietary barrier-type and drainable-type systems, an EIFS typically consists of the following three components:
1. A rigid insulation board, which is secured to the exterior wall surface with a specially formulated adhesive and/or mechanical attachment
2. A durable, water-resistant base coat, which is troweled on top of the insulation and reinforced with fiberglass mesh (or scrim) that is embedded in the wet base coat for added strength
3. A durable finish coat material, an acrylic polymer that usually contains an integral pigment and sand or marble aggregate and
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Figure 11.11 EIFS. (Dryvit) |
is troweled over the base coat, providing the finished exterior surface, which can be applied in a wide variety of colors and textures
For a barrier-type EIFS, the base coat, finish coat, and any related building sealants (e. g., sealants around windows) are intended to create a surface that serves as a barrier against all water penetration. Any water that penetrates this barrier and infiltrates the wall assembly effectively has leaked into a building’s interior. This design is the original EIFS concept that was brought to the United States and is the most common method used on existing EIFS-clad buildings. As discussed later in this chapter, recent construction flaws have exposed a number of weaknesses in the barrier-type system. Even the United States Gypsum Company recently released a report that stated “ ‘barrier’ EIFS construction is not practical or reliable for residential or commercial construction.”13 The drainable-type EIFS installation, also known as a water – managed or rain-screen system, is similar in concept to masonry cavity wall drainage construction. This method is growing quickly in popularity and is even required by some building codes. Some proprietary systems use an insulation board manufactured with drainage channels that is installed against an exterior wall substrate or weather-resistive barrier. Other EIFS may use some other type of material over the weather-resistive barrier and behind the insulation board to provide a drainage plain. These materials could include a drainage fabric, a metal or plastic lath, or a series of vertical spacers, similar to small furring strips, to remove any water that penetrates the exterior skin (Figs. 11.12 and 11.13).
Drainable-type EIFS are designed so that any incidental water that penetrates the exterior barrier surface drains down the drainage channels, fabric, or membrane and escapes from the base of the wall (or any horizontal obstruction) before it can leak into a building’s interior. A drainable-type EIFS is flashed and weeped and features special construction details such as drainage tracks, drip edges, etc. to prevent moisture from entering in or around window openings (Figs. 11.14 and 11.15).
The insulation board used in EIFS can be EPS, XPS, or PIR. Attachment of the insulation board, whether by mechanical fastening or by adhesives, will be per manufacturer’s installation instructions. Proprietary systems will outline acceptable substrates to be used. These include cement board, exterior-grade gypsum sheathing, glass-mat-faced gypsum sheathing, exterior-grade plywood, or exterior-grade oriented strandboard (OSB).
Most EIFS are formulated with an integral pigmented (colored) acrylic-based finish coat that provides resistance to fading, chalking, and yellowing. Although surfaces can be painted, the integral colors are designed to maintain their original appearance over time. An EIFS is very flexible in order to avoid the unsightly cracking problems that are common with stucco, concrete, and brick exteriors. An EIFS is usually about $4 to $6 per square foot.
The barrier-type EIFS was plagued by large-scale moisture intrusion problems in the 1990s in various locations around the country. Few locales received more attention than those in Hanover County and Wilmington, North Carolina, the sites of the initial discovery of moisture damage problems in 1995. Although damage was reported across the United States, experts believe the accelerated number of housing starts in the Wilmington area may have overwhelmed homebuilders’ ability to maintain quality control, thereby leading to the use of substandard building components and unqualified applicators using non-code-approved EIFS.
EPS
Channeled
Insulation
Board
(mechanically
fastened)
Reinforced
Fiberglass
Mesh
Figure 11.12 Drainable type—grooved EPS. (TEC Specialty Products)
 |
 |
Figure 11.13 Drainable type—drainage fabric. (TEC Specialty Products)
INTERIOR AIR SEAL AS RECOMMENDED BY WINDOW MANUF. (PROVIDED BY OTHERS)
FLANGED WINDOW
 |
The specific cause of the EIFS problem has been studied extensively by the National Research Council of Canada (NRCC). According to NRCC reports, wind-driven rain most commonly enters the waterproof barrier EIFS surface in and around windows and other penetrations and at wall-roof intersections. Because a barrier-type EIFS provides no means for allowing water to escape the wall cavity, escape occurs only through evaporation into the structure or through the breathable EIFS. If it is not allowed to
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APPROVED WEATHER-RESISTIVE
NOTES: MAINTAIN 1/8" SPACE BETWEEN INSULATION AND WEEP CASING BEAD Figure 11.15 Section detail of drainage fabric at foundation. (TEC Specialty Products) |
evaporate, as was the case in Wilmington because of the unusual climatic conditions coupled with the state building codes, it can remain in the wall for extended periods of time and eventually damage and even rot wood framing, sheathing, and other moisture – sensitive building components.
The class-action lawsuits stemming from these problems typically involved the barrier-type EIFS that used insulation board over plywood, oriented strandboard, exterior-grade gypsum, or other nonmasonry substrate on an exterior wall assembly. Drainable systems that included a secondary weather barrier did not suffer the same problems incurred by the barrier-type EIFS.
Problems associated with an EIFS include cracking, surface degradation, impact damage, inadequate closure (e. g., sealants at windows), and system delamination. Each of these problems can result in water leaking into a building’s interior. The culprit does not appear to be the synthetic stucco finish, but the barrier-type EIFS. It is inevitable in building construction that water will always find a way into a wall assembly. It is when the water or moisture cannot get out that problems seem to occur.
There are a number of areas that are more prone to water intrusion in residential applications of EIFS. These include
1. Interfaces between an EIFS and dissimilar materials.
2. Window joints around the perimeter of a window.
3. Seams and joints in the construction of the window unit, such as jambs and the sill interface.
4. Ganged window units that are not factory mulled.
5. Roof terminations against the lower edge of a wall.
6. Chimneys, decks, and any other penetration of the EIFS. This includes the installation of cap flashing, cricket flashing at trapped valleys, and effective kick-out flashing for roof-to-rake wall intersections.
7. Missing, damaged, or deteriorated sealant between the EIFS cladding and windows and doors, and around electrical fixtures, electric meter bases, hose bibs, refrigerant lines, etc. (Annual inspections of all seals by the homeowner is a good idea.)
8. Using sealants that are not polyurethane – or silicone-based (ASTM C920, “Standard Specification for Elastomeric Joint Sealants.”)
9. Using a high-pressure power washer. (Low-pressure washing, such as with a garden hose, may be used.)
10. Kick-out flashing (cants) at roof-to-wall intersections.
11. Diverter flashing or crickets around trapped valleys.
12. Inadequate flashing (flashing should “terminate to daylight”).
13. Inability or lack of access for visual inspection and treatment of the foundation for pest control. (The termination of EIFS should always be above finished grade.)
Periodic maintenance should include a thorough check of the flashing and sealing to ensure that the building envelope remains watertight. Damaged or missing flashing should be repaired or replaced immediately; likewise, cracked or deteriorated sealants should be repaired immediately or removed and replaced. Periodic use of a moisture meter will test for moisture content.
Installation standards and practices
To ensure long-term performance of an EIFS, the EIFS Industry Members Association (EIMA) recommends that the following steps be taken prior to and during construction:
1. Selection of an EIMA member manufacturer who can provide technical support, documented product and system test results, and building code compliance information.
2. Verification that all components are supplied and/or approved by one manufacturer.
3. Selection of a knowledgeable, experienced applicator who has current approval of the manufacturer or other manufacturer – certified education requirements.
4. A thorough review by the EIFS manufacturer of any unusual project details or conditions before the work commences.
5. Verification that the proper materials (with identification and labels intact) were shipped and stored in accordance with the manufacturer’s requirements.
6. Checking to make sure the applicator is using all components from the same company.
Appendix
EIFS Industry Members Association (EIMA)
3000 Corporate Center Drive, Suite 270
Morrow, GA 30260
800-294-3462
770-968-7945
Fax: 770-968-5818
http:/ /www. eifsfacts. com
Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy Clearinghouse (EREC)
RO. Box 3048 Merrifield, VA 22116 800-DOE-EREC (363-3732)
Email: doe. erec@nciinc. com
EPS Molders Association 2128 Espey Court Suite 4
Crofton, MD 21114 800-607-3772 410-451-8341 Fax: 410-451-8343 E-mail: bdecampo@aol. com http:/ /www. epsmolders. org/
Polyisocyanurate Insulation Manufacturers Association (PIMA)
1331 F Street, NW, Suite 975
Washington, DC 20004
202-628-6558
Fax: 202-628-3856
E-mail: pima@pima. org
http: / / www. pima. org / contactus. html
AFM Corporation/R-Control
PO. Box 246
24000 W. Highway 7
Excelsior, MN 55331
800-255-0176
952-474-0809
Fax: 952-474-2074
BASF Corporation
3000 Continental Drive North
Mt. Olive, NJ 07828
973-426-3908
Fax: 973-426-3904
http:// www. basf. com
Celotex Corporation 4010 Boy Scout Blvd.
Tampa, FL 33607
800-CELOTEX
813-873-4000
E-mail: international@celotex. com http:/ /www. celotex. com/
Dryvit Systems, Inc.
One Energy Way
West Warwick, RI 02893
401-822-4100
800-556-7752
Fax: 401-823-8820
Owens Corning
One Owens Corning Parkway
Toledo, OH 43659
800-438-7465
Parex, Inc.
P. O. Box 189 Redan, GA 30074 770-482-7872 800-537-2739 Fax: 770-482-6878 www. parex. com
Tec Specialty Products Inc.
315 South Hicks Road Palatine, IL 60067 800-323-7407 847-358-9500 Fax: 800-952-2368
Pactive Building Products Amocor, Amofoam, Tenneco 2100 Riveredge Parkway Suite 175 Atlanta, GA 30328 800-227-7339 678-589-7337
http:/ /www. tennecobuildingprod. com/index. html
USG Corporation 125 S. Franklin St.
Chicago, IL 60606
800 USG-4YOU
800-874-4968
312-606-4000
E-mail: usg4you@usg. com
http.7 /www. usg. com/
Reference
1. “The Fire Hazard of Polyurethane and Other Organic Foam Insulation Aboard Ships and in Construction,” Hazard Information Bulletin, OSHA. Available at http: / /www. oshaslc. gov /dts /hib/hib data /hib19890510.html.
2. John S. Horvath, Geofoam Geosynthetic: Past, Present, and Future. (Bronx, NY: Manhattan College.
3. J. D. Nisson and Gautam Dutt, The Superinsulated Home Book (New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1985), p. 87.
4. Mark Robert Morden, “Selecting Roof Insulation,” Building Operating Management Magazine. Available at http:llwww. facilitiesnet. com/ fnlNSINS2b7bb. html | tfdfee*=1234567890123456789112753835.
5. EPS Molders Association Web site: http: / /www. epsmolders. org/techin – fo /9502.htm.
6. EcoPan Panel Building System product literature. Available at http:/ /www. ecopan. ca/Eco-Pan. htm.
7. Alex Wilson, Environmental Building News, 4(1), 1995.
8. “Foam Sheathing Essential for Steel-Framed Walls,” Energy Source Builder 38, 1995. Available at http:/ /oikos. com/esb/38/steelstudy. html.
9. “Foam and Foam Board Insulation,” EREC Reference Briefs, Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy Clearinghouse, U. S. Department of Energy, Washington.
10. Tyler Stewart Rogers, Thermal Design of Buildings, (New York: John Wiley and Sons, 1964), p. 33.
11. Roofhelp Web site, E. J. Sandquist: http://www. roofhelp. com/Rvalue. htm.
12. “New Types of Insulation,” EREC Reference Briefs. Available at http: / / www. eren. doe. gov /consumerinfo /refbriefs/eb9.html.
13. Jim Reicherts, “Water-Management: The Future of EIFS,” United States Gypsum Company literature, p. 1.
Chapter
Radiant Barriers and Reflective
Insulation
Images from В movies have propagated an unwarranted depiction of “radiation” and its effects on human health. In reality, radiation is the “stuff’ of life. The sun emits electromagnetic waves, a form of radiation, that directly transport energy in a straight path at the speed of light across the vacuum of space. As postulated by Albert Einstein in 1905, electromagnetic radiation travels at 186,281.7 mi/s and is only slightly slowed when passing through the earth’s atmosphere.
Radiation, or more specifically, electromagnetic radiation, is energy that can be detected only when it interacts with matter. This is best exemplified by the warmth that is felt on a person’s face when stepping out into the sun after standing under a shade tree. Wood stoves work by this same principle by transferring heat primarily via long-wave radiation to solid objects such as furniture, walls, floors, and people that are in “their” line of sight.
The electromagnetic spectrum refers to the complete range of possible electromagnetic radiation energies. The six types of electromagnetic radiation (wavelengths or frequencies) in order of increasing energy level are
1. Radio waves. Radio waves (including television and radar communications) are the region of the electromagnetic spectrum with very long wavelengths.
2. Infrared radiation. Infrared radiation, or heat energy, is the region of the electromagnetic spectrum with wavelengths long
enough to cause molecules to vibrate, increasing the temperature of the molecules.
3. Visible light Visible light is the region of the electromagnetic spectrum where photons have enough energy to interact with certain pigment molecules in the retina of the eye to allow sight. This corresponds to the region of greatest solar output. All the colors of the rainbow fall into this small region, ranging from violet through indigo, blue, green, yellow, orange, and red.
4. Ultraviolet radiation. Ultraviolet radiation is the region of the electromagnetic spectrum where photons are sufficiently energetic to change energy states within atoms and molecules, sometimes even breaking them apart. Ozone absorbs certain types of ultraviolet (UV) radiation from the sun, which protects biologic organisms from the effects of UV rays.
5. X-rays. Most commonly known are its medical applications, since x-rays can be used to investigate the structure of molecules. X-rays are energetic photons that are produced in nuclear reactions and solar storms.
6. Gamma rays. Gamma rays are the most energetic of photons in the electromagnetic spectrum and the most biologically damaging. Gamma rays are produced in nuclear fusion reactions and can strip electrons away from molecules and atoms.
Although light is the name given to the type of electromagnetic radiation that can be seen, the bulk of the earth’s radiant emit – tance occurs in the infrared portion of the electromagnetic spectrum. A barrier to limit the transfer of infrared radiation is commonly referred to as a radiant barrier. In residential design applications, a radiant barrier is a single sheet of reflective material positioned so that it faces an open space, such as an attic or wall cavity. Generally more effective in hot climates than in cool climates, radiant barriers often are used in buildings to reduce summer heat gain and winter heat loss. The radiant barrier itself provides no significant thermal resistance and must be installed in conjunction with an airspace to be effective.
Reflective insulation is the use of radiant barriers in combination with other materials such as a system of reflective sheets and airspaces designed together to fill a cavity and act as insulation. Reflective insulation systems typically are fabricated from aluminum foils with a variety of backings such as kraft paper, plastic film, polyethylene bubbles, or cardboard.
The use of a reflective surface to intercept the flow of radiant energy is actually historical in origin. Metal foil, which is solid metal reduced to a leaflike thinness by beating or rolling, has been around for centuries. The first mass-produced and widely used foil was made from tin. Aluminum was discovered in 1825 and replaced tin as the base material of foil in 1910, when the first aluminum foil rolling plant was opened in Switzerland.
This process evolved into the production of Reynolds Wrap, an American kitchen staple since 1947 that has protected leftovers, candy bars, and even NASA’s “space blankets.” (Reappropriated for consumers, the “survival blanket” is a thin plastic sheet that has a thin layer of metallized aluminum powder that is electrostatically fused over the plastic sheet on either one or both sides and is available in most camping stores.)
Thermal Principles
As discussed in Chap. 3, there are three modes of heat transfer: convection, conduction, and radiation. Convection is the transfer of heat in a fluid or air that is caused by the physical movement of the molecules of the heated air or fluid. When warm air in a room rises and forces the cooler air down, convection is taking place. Convection also can be caused mechanically (forced convection), by a fan or by wind.
Conduction is the process by which heat transfer takes place in solid matter, resulting from physical contact. The transfer of heat by conduction is caused by molecular motion in which molecules transfer their energy to adjoining molecules and increase their temperature. A typical example of conduction is seen when heat is transferred from a stove burner to a tea kettle, causing its contents to boil.
The third method of heat transfer, radiation, can be “observed” by the way the sun warms the surface of the earth. Radiation is the only method by which solar energy can cross millions of miles of empty space and reach the earth. While conduction and convection can be transferred only through a medium, radiation can be transferred across a perfect vacuum by electromagnetic waves.
The sun’s transmission of electromagnetic waves to material surfaces, where they are absorbed and experienced in the form of heat, is analogous to a television signal. For example, a television transmitter emits an electromagnetic wave that travels through space. The wave is captured by the antenna and converted to a video image by the television. The radiant heat transfer between objects operates independently of air currents and is controlled by the character of the material’s surface and the temperature difference between objects. Warm objects and cool objects will emit radiation, just at different rates. For example, radiant heat transfer takes place when a person feels cold while standing in front of a cold window, even if the inside air is warm. The human body radiates its stored heat toward the cold window surface. (The window is also emitting heat toward the warm body, just at a much slower rate.)
All matter emits radiation, provided that its temperature is above absolute zero. (Absolute zero is 459°F below zero.) Electromagnetic radiation does not contain any heat but only energy. The energy travels in a straight line at the speed of light until it is absorbed or reflected by another substance. Heat is generated when the energy in the different parts of the electromagnetic spectrum is transferred to the molecules in the substances that absorb the heat rays. The transfer of radiant energy from one object to another occurs without adding temperature to the airspace between them. For heat to move by radiation, there must be only a space between the objects. If the objects are touching, then the heat moves by conduction, not by radiation.
Incident energy striking an object can be absorbed by the object, reflected by the object, or transmitted through the object if it is not opaque. Since the building materials available for radiant barrier application are opaque, transmittance is not applicable to this discussion.
Absorptance is the quantitative measure of a material’s ability to absorb radiant energy. Although an ideal blackbody is hypothetical, objects are often identified by comparison of their radiative properties with those of a blackbody at the same temperature. A black – body radiator is referred to as black because an ideal blackbody is a hypothetical object that absorbs all radiation incident on its surface. Since it does not reflect any radiation (including visible light), it appears black. An approximate blackbody is lampblack, which reflects less than 2 percent of incoming radiation. Pot belly stoves, for example, are flat black so that they will freely emit radiant heat. In theory, a mirrored surface may reflect 98 percent of the energy, while absorbing 2 percent of the energy (although aluminum foil does not have to be shiny to reflect 95 to 97 percent). A good blackbody surface will reverse the ratio, absorbing 98 percent of the energy and reflecting only 2 percent.
Emittance refers to the ability of a material’s surface to emit radiant energy. In layperson’s terms, this means to “give off heat.” Materials that radiate a large amount of heat and absorb a large percentage of the radiation that strikes them have high emittance values. The lower the emittance of a material, the lower the amount of heat that is radiated from its surface. Aluminum foil has a very low emittance value of 0.03 to 0.05 (Fig. 12.1).
Emittance value is often expressed as a material’s emissivity. Emissivity is the ratio of the radiant energy emitted by a source to that emitted by a blackbody at the same temperature, expressed in a value ranging from 0 to 1. Most common building materials, including glass and paints of all colors, have high emissivities near
0. 9. These materials are ineffective barriers to radiant energy transfer because they are capable of transferring 90 percent of their radiant energy potential.
Kirchoff’s law states that for any object, absorptivity equals emissivity. This means that an object that is a strong absorber at a particular wavelength is also a strong emitter at that wavelength and an object that is a weak absorber at a particular wavelength is also a weak emitter at that wavelength. Emissivity of a blackbody is 1. Conversely, a perfect reflector has an emissivity of 0.
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Material Surface |
Emittance |
|
Asphalt |
0.90-0.98 |
|
^Aluminum foil |
0.03-0.05 |
|
Brick |
0.93 |
|
Concrete |
0.85-0.95 |
|
Glass |
0.95 |
|
Fiberglass / Cellulose |
0.8-1.0 |
|
Iron (polished) |
0.06 |
|
Iron (rusty) |
0.85 |
|
Limestone |
0.36-0.90 |
|
Marble |
0.93 |
|
Paint: white lacquer |
0.80 |
|
Paint: white enamel |
0.91 |
|
Paint: black lacquer |
0.80 |
|
Paint: black enamel |
0.91 |
|
Paper |
0.92 |
|
Plaster |
0.91 |
|
Silver |
0.02 |
|
Steel (mild) |
0.12 |
|
Wood |
0.90 |
|
Figure 12.1 Emittance values. (.RIMA) |
Reflectance (or reflectivity) refers to the measure of how much radiant heat is reflected by a material. Reflectivity and emissivity are inversely related. When the emissivity and reflectivity are added together, the sum is 1. Therefore, a material with a high reflectivity has a low emissivity, and a low emittance is indicative of a highly reflective surface. For example, since aluminum has an emissivity of
0. 03, it has a reflectance of 0.97. Since it eliminates 97 percent of the radiant transfer potential, aluminum foil is very effective as an excellent radiant barrier and reflective insulation product.
Radiant Barriers Product description
Mass-type insulations limit heat flow by possessing low thermal conductivity, allowing less heat to be transferred, or by trapping still air within the insulation, thereby limiting convection. A radiant barrier is a reflective surface on or near a building component that intercepts the flow of radiant energy to and from the building component. Typically a layer of reinforced foil, a radiant barrier reduces the amount of heat radiated across an airspace that is adjacent to the radiant barrier. The effectiveness of a radiant barrier is based on its ability to reflect the radiation that strikes it and at the same time not radiate energy. As discussed earlier, the lower the emissivity, the higher is the reflectance and the better is the radiant barrier.
Radiant barrier materials must have high reflectivity (usually 0.9, or 90 percent, or more) and low emissivity (usually 0.1 or less) and must face an open airspace to perform properly. A radiant barrier by itself provides no thermal resistance; it must be installed in conjunction with an airspace. For example, aluminum foil is a good thermal conductor but has an extremely low R-value. If it is placed between materials that are attempting to transfer thermal energy by radiation, it must be separated from these materials by an air layer. The foil effectively eliminates the normal radiant energy exchange across the airspace. If the airspace is not maintained, conduction is introduced. For example, where a radiant barrier surface comes in contact with another surface, such as mass insulation, direct conduction of heat will occur at all the points of contact.
The Department of Energy (DOE) reported that radiant barriers tend to offer a much lower potential for energy savings in colder climates. Radiant barriers are more effective in blocking summer heat gain and saving air-conditioning costs.1 At present, there is no standardized method for testing the effectiveness of radiant barriers in reducing heating and cooling bills. Numerous field tests have been performed, however, that show that radiant barriers are effective in reducing cooling bills by limiting total heat gain. For example, solar energy is absorbed by the roof on a sunny day, which in turn heats the roof sheathing. This causes the underside of the sheathing and the roof framing to radiate heat downward toward the attic floor. If a radiant barrier is placed below the roof sheathing or on the attic floor, much of the heat radiated from the hot roof is reflected back toward the roof and not emitted to the attic airspace. This makes the top surface of the insulation cooler than it would have been without a radiant barrier and thus reduces the amount of heat that moves through the insulation into the rooms below the ceiling. The best results from this installation are achieved when there is ventilation between the radiant barriers and the roof. This prevents that space from overheating and reducing the effectiveness of the radiant barriers. Test results indicate that cooling bill savings are more dramatic in homes having lower amounts of conventional insulation. The DOE has established typical savings amounts based on attic insulation values2 (Figs. 12.2 and 12.3).
The North American Insulation Manufacturers Association (NAIMA) performed a number of tests in 1988 that studied the effects of adding radiant barriers to existing homes. These tests showed that radiant barriers located on the top of the rafters and draped between the cavities resulted in a 20 to 26 percent reduction in summer ceiling heat flow for a home with R-19 ceiling insulation. Studies were not performed with R-30 insulation and radiant barriers.3
Installation standards and practices
Radiant barriers can be manufactured in a variety of ways. Commercial products include radiant barrier material that is preapplied to rigid insulation, applied to structural sheathing, and as reinforced sheet radiant barrier material. Sheet materials include single-sided and double-sided foils. Radiant barriers that are manufactured as multilayered foil systems with airspaces are discussed in the reflective insulation section of this chapter. The application of sheet material is discussed in this section.
The installation of multiple layers of radiant barrier materials is generally discouraged. One layer of a typical radiant barrier material will block 95 percent of radiant heat gain. A second layer for the purpose of blocking additional radiant gain will block less than 5 percent. The material and labor costs incurred when installing
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Present Value Savings for Radiant Barrier Attached to Bottoms of Rafters (Note: R-l 1, R-19, R-30, and R-38 refer to the existing level of conventional insulation.)
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Note: First value applies to houses with no air-conditioning ducts in attics. Second value applies to houses with air-conditioning ducts in attics.
Figures in table are based on a radiant barrier with an emissivity of 0.05 or less, with the radiant barrier covering the insides of the gables. Savings are for a 25 year period.
Figure 12.2 Energy savings. (Department of Energy) multiple layers will not be recouped by the additional energy use savings.
Likewise, a radiant barrier material with two foil sides is only modestly better than one with a single foil side. In an attic airspace, one foil side blocks up to 95 percent of the radiant heat transfer. A second foil surface can block only a portion of the remaining 5 percent. Therefore, a second foil surface usually is not cost-effective.
Radiant barriers are easiest to install during construction. Nevertheless, installing a radiant barrier system in an existing
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Present Value Savings for Radiant Barrier Draped over Tops of Rafters or Attached to Roof Deck (Note: R-l 1, R-19, R-30, and R-38 refer to the existing level of conventional insulation.)
|
Note: First value applies to houses with no air-conditioning ducts in attics. Second value applies to houses with air-conditioning ducts in attics.
Figures in table are based on a radiant barrier with an emissivity of 0.05 or less, with the radiant barrier covering the insides of the gables. Savings are for a 25 year period.
Figure 12.3 Energy savings. (Department of Energy)
home can be relatively easy provided there is sufficient working room in the attic.
According to the DOE, there are five possible locations for the installation of an attic radiant barrier system to be effective2 (Fig. 12.4):
1. Before the roof sheathing is applied, the radiant barrier is draped over the rafters or trusses. The radiant barrier should droop 1V2 to 3" between each rafter. An airspace is necessary between the radiant barrier and the roof sheathing. This is suitable for new construction only.
2. The radiant barrier is attached to the faces of the rafters or top chords of the roof trusses. If the barrier is single-sided, the reflective face should face downward, toward the attic, to minimize any dust accumulation. An airspace (3/4M minimum) is necessary between the radiant barrier and the roof sheathing.
3. The radiant barrier is attached to the bottom of the rafters or top chords of the roof trusses. An airspace (3/4M minimum) is necessary between the radiant barrier and the roof sheathing.
4. The radiant barrier can be laid out on the attic floor over the top of existing attic insulation, provided the insulation does not fill the cavity. As with all radiant barrier installations, an airspace must be maintained to avoid any conductive heat transfer. If the barrier is single-sided, the reflective face should face downward, toward the attic insulation (and above the airspace), to minimize any dust accumulation. This application always should be done with a perforated radiant barrier and one that has foil on both sides for maximum performance.
5. The radiant barrier material is preattached directly to the underside of the roof deck. Plywood and oriented strandboard products laminated with foil on one side are available.
There are some basic safety considerations that an installer,
either a professional or a homeowner, should consider during radiant barrier installation:
1. Although American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM) installation standards do not require special protection when handling radiant barrier materials, handling conventional insulation may cause skin, eye, and respiratory system irritation. If in doubt about the effects of the insulation, protective clothing, gloves, eye protection, and breathing protection should be worn.
2. Be especially careful with electrical wiring, particularly around junction boxes and old wiring. Never staple through, near, or over electrical wiring. Repair any obviously frayed or defective wiring in advance of radiant barrier installation.
3. Work in the attic only when temperatures are reasonable.
4. Working with a partner not only will expedite the process, but assistance will be immediately available should a problem occur.
5. Unfinished attics can be especially dangerous. Step and stand only on the attic joists or trusses, or use dimensional lumber for a working platform.
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6. In most attics, roofing nails penetrate through the underside of the roof.
7. Make sure that the attic space is well ventilated and lighted.
8. Do not cover any recessed lights or kitchen and bathroom vents with radiant barrier material during an attic floor application.
Radiant barriers can be used above unheated basements and crawl spaces and in wall and floor applications. These assemblies require specific design conditions, airspace clearances, and vapor retarder placement to be effective. (Unless perforated, radiant barrier materials will qualify as a vapor retarder. Perforated foils typically are used only when laying on top of existing attic insulation.) Foil-faced fiberglass batts with a fire-retardant binder, stapled to the sides of the wall studs, require an airspace between the foil facing and interior sheathing to be effective. A larger wall cavity, and subsequently deeper wall stud framing members, will be required. Another less common technique is to use foil-faced gypsum wallboard over furring strips on the interior stud faces. The furring strips create an airspace between the foil facing and cavity insulation.
“Vent skin” construction is commonly used in Florida. In this assembly, a radiant barrier is applied to the exterior of the wall, followed by furring strips and sheathing. The airspace created by the furring strips typically is vented top and bottom so that outdoor air can circulate into and through the space (Fig. 12.5).
Since radiant energy travels in a straight line through the air and is not affected by air currents, airtight seals are not necessary for a radiant barrier to perform effectively. Since radiant barriers are both barriers to heat transfer and vapor retarders, proper radiant barrier selection must be coordinated with vapor retarder placement to avoid trapping condensation in certain climates. Perforated radiant barriers are also used if moisture vapor condensation could present a problem, as in placement of the radiant barrier on top of mass insulation on an attic floor.
Since radiant barriers redirect radiant heat back through the roof, tests have demonstrated that radiant barriers can cause a small increase in roofing material temperatures. Roof-mounted radiant
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Figure 12.5 Vented radiant barrier wall section. {Bynum) |
barriers may increase shingle temperatures by 2 to 10° F, whereas radiant barriers on the attic floor may cause smaller increases of 2°F or less. The effects of these sustained higher temperatures on the roof shingles or substrate have not been shown to degrade the life of shingles.
If the radiant barrier is installed directly on top of attic floor insulation, condensation of moisture vapor can become a problem. For example, moisture vapor from the interior of a house may move into the attic during the winter months. A radiant barrier on top of the insulation could cause the vapor to condense on the radiant barrier’s underside. As is the case when a vapor retarder is placed on the wrong side of insulation, radiant barrier materials function as an additional vapor retarder on the opposite side of the wall cavity. For this reason, this application would call for a perforated radiant barrier. This can be especially critical in cold climates.
Installing a radiant barrier directly on top of attic floor insulation also can compromise its effectiveness due to dust accumulation. This location is also not appropriate when a large part of the attic is used for storage, since the radiant barrier surface must be exposed to the attic space. It also can be punctured or torn during any service work that may need to be done in the attic.
Durability during installation is an important consideration when comparing products. Thicker foil layers and the use of a reinforcing material are superior to the lower-cost foils that have minimal tear resistance.
A radiant barrier must receive a Class А/Class 1 fire rating. A flame spread index of 25 or less and a smoke development index of 450 or less must be achieved according to ASTM E84. These ratings should be printed on the product or listed on the manufacturer’s material safety data sheets (MSDS) or other technical data literature.
Installing an attic radiant barrier is obviously easier and less expensive during new construction. If a retrofit project is undertaken, the amount of room the contractor has to maneuver in in the attic will affect cost. Radiant barrier material costs vary, ranging from $0.10 to $0.45 per square foot. Although most materials can be installed by a homeowner, a contractor may charge an additional amount for installation costs.
The energy savings payback period will vary extensively, contingent on the cost of the radiant barrier installation, heating and cooling periods, amount of existing insulation, etc. Data are not available for specific calculations, but regional research in Florida suggests that a payback period of 10 years can be expected in hot southern climates.4
Reflective Insulation Product description
Unlike single-sheet radiant barrier materials, reflective insulation is a multilayer radiant barrier product with an intrinsic R-value. Comprised of layers of aluminum foil, paper, and/or polyethylene, the insulation creates reflective airspaces within the cavity, thereby reducing radiant heat transfer and heat flow by convection. The use of aluminum foil as a reflective insulation ensures a minimum 95 to 97 percent reflectance of long-wave radiant heat.
Reflective insulation installation applications are similar to those of radiant barriers. Since most foil-faced reflective insulation products also retard vapor transmission, special attention must be paid to vapor retarder placement in the wall, floor, or ceiling assembly. Trapping moisture between two vapor retarders can lead to condensation-related decay and damage. This can be problematic in attic floor insulation applications. If, for example, a vapor retarder is located on the interior ceiling side of the insulation, reflective insulation cannot be laid on top of the existing insulation.
Foil-faced polyethylene insulation
The most common reflective insulation products are foil-faced polyethylene sheets, which consist of layers of aluminum foil separated by polyethylene bubbles (Fig. 12.6). The polyethylene air cushioning can be from one to five layers depending on the manufacturer. Many products incorporate stapling flanges at the edge for easy installation. These products are noncarcinogenic, water-resistant, and fungus-resistant. With few exceptions, foil-faced polyethylene insulation is not restricted by code from being left exposed, provided the product is classified with a Class 1, Class A fire rating.
Foil-faced polyethylene insulation is lightweight, easy to install with a staple gun, and can be cut using a utility knife. Tears or excess cuts usually can be repaired with 2 or 3M-wide pressure-sen-
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Figure 12.6 Astro-foil reflective insulation. (Astro-Foil) |
sitive aluminum tape. (Do not use duct tape.) A 3/4" minimum airspace must be maintained on each side of the insulation. The sizes available vary based on specific products. Rolls are usually available in widths of up to 6 ft and lengths of up to 125 ft. Typical thickness are V4,3/16, or 5/16M.
Locations where reflective insulation can be installed include
1. Over roof trusses/rafters
2. Interior sides of wall studs/furring, exposed or encapsulated
3. Undersides of floor joists/trusses, exposed or encapsulated
4. Undersides of first floor joist/trusses at crawl spaces, exposed or encapsulated
5. Below interior ceiling joists/trusses/rafters, exposed or encapsulated
6. As a wrap for HVAC supply ducts
7. As a wrap for water heaters
8. As a wrap for water supply piping
9. As primary insulation for in-floor hydronic staple-up heating systems
R-values of reflective insulations depend on the direction of the heat flow. This can be confusing when one is accustomed to comparing singular R-values for conventional mass insulations. For example, one manufacturer of 5/16M foil-faced polyethylene insulation reports R-values to be 15.0 down, 5.4 up, and 7.31 horizontal.
Sideways (horizontal) heat flow through a wall will result in nominal convection loss. Upward heat flow, as through the ceiling in the winter, is in the same primary direction as convection, so the R-value is significantly reduced. In downward heat flow applications, such as through the floor to a crawl space in the winter or through the roof in the summer, convection is not a factor, resulting in maximum R-values. Reflective insulations must be installed with an airspace in order for the radiant heat to be reflected. Therefore, the R-values are reported as an installed system that includes the R-value of the surrounding airspaces.5 If the airspace dimension is changed, then the R-value of the system is changed.
Foil-faced kraft paper is produced as a folded or rolled product and is available with two to five layers in a wide range of effective resistances. The airspaces are formed only when the product is stretched to its full width. Care must be taken in installation to ensure that the paper is sufficiently stretched and that foil layers are not touching, or the material will not be fully effective. Prices vary accordingly, from around 14 to 70 cents per square foot.6
There are a number of laminated structural sheathing materials, such as foil-faced paperboard, that have reflective surfaces but are not installed as radiant barriers. Production homebuilders (“national builders”) commonly use these materials as the substrate for houses with vinyl siding. Installed in this manner, these products lack only an airspace in order to be used as a radiant barrier. Costs for these products range from 13 to 25 cents per square foot.6
A new name on the market is TechShield, and is produced by Louisiana Pacific. TechShield is highly polished, kraft paper-backed, perforated aluminum. Formerly labeled Kool-Ply, TechShield is a patented radiant barrier overlay that is laminated directly to either oriented strandboard (OSB) or plywood structural panels, and mainly used as roof decking. TechShield radiant barrier decking is installed in the same manner as standard APA-rated sheathing. A V2 to 3/4" airspace must be maintained between the foil and the insulation blanket between the roof rafters or ceiling joists (Fig. 12.7).
The following are the ASTM standards associated with reflective insulation materials and radiant barrier products.
C236-89, “Standard Test Method for Steady-State Thermal Performance of Building Assemblies by Means of a Guarded Hot Box”
C727-90, “Standard Practice for Use and Installation of Reflective Insulation in Building Constructions”
C976-90, “Standard Test Method for Thermal Performance of Building Assemblies by Means of a Calibrated Hot Box”
C1158-90, “Standard Practice for Use and Installation of Radiant Barrier Systems (RBS) in Building Construction”
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Figure 12.7 Radiant barrier laminate. (Louisiana-Pacific Corp., Tech-Shield) |
C1224-93, “Standard Specification for Reflective Insulation for Building Applications”
C1313-95, “Standard Specification for Sheet Radiant Barriers for Building Construction Applications”
C1340-96, “Standard Practice for Estimation of Heat Gain or Loss Through Ceilings Under Attics Containing Radiant Barriers by Use of a Computer Program”
C1371-96, “Standard Test Method for Determination of Emittance of Materials Near Room Temperature Using Portable Emissometers”
E84-95b, “Standard Test Method for Surface Burning Characteristics of Building Materials”
E96-95, “Standard Test Method for Water Vapor Transmission of Materials”
Coatings can be applied to the interior of a home that will work as radiant barriers. Interior radiation control coating (IRCC) is a nonthickness-dependent silver-colored low-emittance coating. When applied to nonporous building materials such as plywood, OSB, metal siding, or plasterboard, it lowers the normal surface emittance of these materials to 0.24 or lower. It is somewhat less efficient because of its higher emissivity when compared with a foil or film product.7
One manufacturer reports that about 40 percent of the radiant energy generated within a room in the winter is reflected back into the room after this paint is applied. Similar results are claimed in the summer: A room coated with a low-E (low-E is an abbreviation for low emissivity) wall paint on the interior of a building’s walls will not allow about 40 percent of the radiant energy to be emitted into the room.8
A water-based IRCC can be rolled or spray applied (either air atomization or airless is the most effective method of installation) in existing structures where the cost of installing foil or film products may be prohibitive. Brush painting is usually impractical because these coatings have a very low viscosity and are not formulated for brush application. It is imperative that after installation the surface painted with the IRCC face a minimum of a 2" airspace.
Technical data and field testing research are limited with these new products. Low-E coatings, as these products are commonly called, have a lower emissivity than the higher-build ceramic coatings. See Chap. 14 for a discussion of ceramic pigmented solar radiation control coatings for exterior application.
In order to minimize the transfer of radiant heat through glass, a revolutionary product was invented in the early 1980s called low-E glass. Low-E glass allows natural light to enter, while reflecting indoor heat energy back into the home in winter. Likewise, it reflects outdoor heat energy back to the outside in summer.9 There are two types of low-E coatings, softcoat and hardcoat. Softcoat low-E coatings are vacuum deposited on the glass after it comes off the float glass manufacturing line. These coatings are created as the room-temperature glass passes through a series of vacuum chambers where metallic particles are deposited onto the glass surface.
Hardcoat low-E coatings are applied in a pyrolytic process on the float glass manufacturing line before the glass has cooled. This means the coating is sprayed on the molten glass and is fused to the glass as it cools, creating a permanent bond. Although this product is not as thermally effective as softcoat glass, the process produces a coating that is as durable as the glass itself.10
While ordinary clear glass allows more solar energy into your home than low-E glass does, clear glass has such a low R-value that it allows not only the solar energy gain but any furnace-generated heat (during the winter) to escape. Low-E windows can achieve R – values as high as R-5, a marked improvement over R-l single-pane or even R-2 double-pane windows. Low-E windows cost a little more than standard windows and allow slightly less light to enter but are often cost-effective in extremely hot or cold climates.11
As an interesting sidenote, reflective insulation is also available for windows. Proprietarily known as Sailshades, this product is a sevenlayered roll product. When raised during winter days, Sailshades allow the benefits of the sun’s passive heating to reach the interior of the home. When lowered during winter evenings, the product serves as a wall of insulation for the structure. Similar to foil-faced polyethylene insulation, two outer layers of aluminum foil are bonded to a layer of polyethylene for strength. Two inner layers of bubblepack resist heat flow, whereas a center layer of polyethylene gives the insulation additional strength. The product features an
R-value as high as 8.83. The shades are custom made for each window but are not cheap. A typical 24 X 48" window covering will cost about $176.12
Appendix
Radiant Barrier Fact Sheet
DOE/CE-0335P
June 1991
Department of Energy
Assistant Secretary for Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy
Andre O. Desjarlais
Oak Ridge National Laboratory
R O. Box 2008, MS 6070
Oak Ridge, TN 37831-6070
423-574-0022
Fax: 423-574-9338
E-mail: desjarlaisa@ornl. gov
http:// www. ornl. gov /
U. S. Department of Energy
Office of Scientific and Technical Information
RO. Box 62
Oak Ridge, TN 37830
Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy Clearinghouse (EREC)
RO. Box 3048 Merrifield, VA 22116 800-DOE-EREC (363-3732)
E-mail: doe. erec@nciinc. com
Florida Solar Energy Center State University System of Florida,
300 State Road 401
Cape Canaveral, FL 32920-4099
Reflective Insulation Manufacturers Association P. O. Box 90955 Washington, DC20090 800-279-4123
Astro-Foil Reflective Insulation
R+ Heatshield Radiant Barrier
ASTRO-FOIL Innovative Energy
Robert Wadsworth, President
10653 W. 181st Avenue
Lowell, IN 46356
800-776-3645
219-696-3639
Fax: 800-551-3645
E-mail :ie@astrofoil. com
http:/ /www. insul. net/common. html
ChemRex, Inc.
889 Valley Park
Shakopee, MN 55379
800-766-6776
612-496-6001
Fax:612-496-6058
E-mail: pault@chemrex. com
http:/ /www. radiancecomfort. com
Environmentally Safe Products, Inc. 313 West Golden Ln.
New Oxford, PA 17350 800-289-5693 717-624-3581 Fax: 717-624-7089 E-mail: espinc@low-e. com http://www. low-e. com
Innovative Insulation, Inc.
6200 W. Pioneer Parkway
Arlington, TX 76013
800-825-0123
817-446-6200
Fax: 817-446-6222
E-mail: insulation@earthlink. net
TechShield
Louisiana-Pacific Corp. Headquarters/Corporate Office 111 S. W. Fifth Avenue Portland, OR 97204 800-648-6893
E-mail: customer. support@LPCorp. com
References
1. “Radiant Barriers,” Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy Network (EREN), U. S. Department of Energy. Available at http:/ / www. eren. doe. gov / consumerinfo / refbriefs / bc7.html.
2. “Radiant Barrier Fact Sheet,” DOE/CE-0335P, June 1991, Department of Energy, Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy. Available at http:/ /www. ornl. gov/roofs +walls/radiant/.
3. “Insulation vs. Radiant Barrier: A Performance Comparison,” Factsheet No. 40, Publication No. BI474, North American Insulation Manufacturers Association, June 1995.
4. FSEC Publication FS-37, Florida Energy Extension Service, Florida Cooperative Extension Service, Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences, University of Florida, January 1994. Available at http:/ /edis. ifas. ufl. edu/EH244.
5. Astro-Foil Reflective Insulation Web site: http:/ /www. astrofoil. com/rvaluel. html.
6. FSEC Publication DN-7, Florida Energy Extension Service, Cooperative Extension Service, Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences, University of Florida, May 1994. Available at http:/ /edis. ifas. ufl. edu/EH244.
7. “Reflective Insulation, Radiant Barriers and Radiant Control Coatings,” RIMA, April 1999.
8. ChemRex, Inc., Web site: http://www. radiancecomfort. com/faqs/back- ground. asp.
9. PPG Product Literature, 5067P, October 1996, p. 22.
10. Edward Allen, Fundamentals of Building Construction (New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1990) p. 616.
11. “Low-E Window Glass,” SCANA Company/SCE&G, January 9,1998.
12. Sailshade Web site: http:/ /www. sailshade. com/purchase. html.
Chapter
Earth
Long before the age of manufactured insulation materials, human beings learned to survive against a climate’s thermal discomforts by using the most plentiful of all materials at their disposal: earth. Now, at the dawn of the twenty-first century, this same material is experiencing a renaissance in residential construction. Natural building systems such as adobe, cast earth, cob, wattle and daub, earth shelters, PISE, Earthships, and rammed earth are a few of the earth-based construction systems receiving attention. (Straw bale construction is discussed in Chap. 15.)
It may not seem within the scope of this book to review materials that at a first glance are not conventional insulation products. On closer inspection, however, earth shelters, rammed earth, and other natural building systems are significant and viable alternatives because of the intrinsic thermal mass possible when implemented in appropriate designs and climates.
Earth architecture may be the oldest form of construction in human history. Various forms of indigenous earthen structures and materials have been developed throughout the world. Today it is estimated that 40 to 50 percent of the world’s population still live in earthen dwellings.1
Cob is an old technique that offers the potential to create very sculptural wall shapes. Straw is mixed with small gravel into a sandy soil. The mixture is formed into cobs (lumps), which are thrown onto the wall and worked into the previous applied layer. The rough surface is later trimmed and made smooth. The result is
often a softly undulating surface that is commonly tapered inward toward the top. Cob has been used mostly in experimental buildings in the United States, while code testing procedures are still being investigated.
Wattle and daub starts with a latticework of light branches or timber. An earth-plaster mix is forced (“daubed”) into the gaps in the latticework and finished to give a serviceable surface.
Adobe, or mud brick, is an ancient building technique dating back at least to the days of Jericho (now Israel) in 8300 B. c. Adobe structures built some 900 years ago in the United States are still in use today. The system of fabrication remains virtually unchanged. First, mud bricks are cast in open molds on the ground using a blend of earth and water with the consistency of cake mix. The molds are then removed immediately or allowed to remain until the next day. The bricks are eventually lifted onto their sides, trimmed, and stacked to air dry and cure.1
Rammed earth, also called stabilized rammed earth, is a process by which walls are formed in place by pounding damp soil into movable, reusable frames. Rammed-earth tire construction, also referred to as Earthships, use discarded automobile tires, recycled aluminum cans, and cardboard that are laid flat and rammed with soil.
Passive solar principles are essential to the effectiveness of earth design. Historians are quick to note that these strategies were hardly a result of the 1970s energy crisis. The Anasazi cliff dwellings, for instance, were built into south-facing cliff walls that received the sun’s rays during winter months and were shaded from the sun in the summertime. The Anasazi understood that in winter the sun travels low across the southern sky, and in summer it crosses high overhead. As with their cliff dwellings, passive solar homes with south-facing windows welcome the winter sun and are protected from the summer sun. (Fig. 13.1). Once the winter sun’s rays are in a home, the next requirement for passive solar heating is a place to store those rays. This is intrinsic to the success of the earth shelter, which uses its thermal mass to temporarily store and release heat.2
The ability of solid earth to function as a thermal mass results in interior temperatures that change very little from day to night. Mass walls absorb solar energy during winter days and then reradiate that energy to offset nighttime heat losses within the building. In the summer months, the mass of the walls absorbs excess heat generated during the day, keeping the interior spaces cool. In a properly designed and oriented house, this typically means savings in heating and cooling bills as well as a more comfortable and even
m
"4
south-€ | WINTER
SUMMER L^^FALL
Figure 13.1 Seasonal sun angles. (.McGraw-Hill, Inc.) temperature throughout the home. The energy that determines the temperature inside the house radiates directly from the mass of the walls as opposed to a space regulated through mechanically altered air. Each of the systems discussed herein can be constructed with or without additional insulation. Climate, user preferences, and design standards determine the actual assembly configuration.
Ventilation requirements are of prime concern in an earth-integrated home because of the reduced amount of air infiltration. Approximately two air changes per day typically are desirable. Ventilation can be achieved by either a forced-air system or an operable window system with good cross-ventilation that takes advantage of natural air flows. Natural ventilation also can be maximized with a custom ventilation system designed for the particular floor plan, geographic area, and climate. Additional ventilation is also necessary if open-flame or gas appliances are used in the home.
The inclusion of these systems is intended to inform the reader of alternative construction assemblies that may or may not “be for everyone.” The very fact that many of these systems have been used for hundreds of years indicates that they are a viable alternative to conventional home construction methods.
Earth Homes
For contemporary residential applications, earthen dwellings are commonly referred to as earth-sheltered housing. There are two
types of earth home designs. Earth-sheltered housing, or underground housing, is typified by a structure with two or, in most cases, three sides and the roof covered with earth. There are even successful designs that place the entire structure below grade or completely underground (Fig. 13.2). An earth-bermed house uses a conventional roof, with only the sides of the home partially protected with earth (Fig. 13.3). Each type takes advantage of the natural temperature of the earth. At 5 to 7 ft below grade, most climates will only reduce the earth’s temperature to around 53°F. This natural temperature regulator means the actual “work” of the mechanical thermal control systems to raise or lower temperatures to the desired human comfort level is greatly reduced.
There are a variety of reasons that homeowners provide when explaining their attraction to living in a home that uses soil as the primary building material. These include
1. Energy efficiency
2. Ecologically sound
3. Unique
4. Low life-cycle cost
5. Reduced maintenance
6. Solar heating
7. Water lines never freeze
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Figure 13.2 Underground earth shelter. (.McGraw-Hill, Inc.) |
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Figure 13.3 Bermed earth shelter. (.McGraw-Hill, Inc.) |
8. Storm resistant
9. Termite resistant
10. Rodent resistant
11. Earthquake resistant
12. Decay resistant
13. Fire resistant
14. Limited visual impact
15. Efficient land use
16. Wood conservation
17. Environmental benefits
The improvement in earth design systems over the past 20 years appears to have corrected many of the mistakes that plagued earth homes in the 1970s. There are a number of variations on a theme when it comes to specifying or constructing this building type. Proper research, inspection of existing structures, and sound construction practice by qualified contractors will provide a comfortable, thermally efficient earth-sheltered home that will last many years.
There are three generic design types that are commonly found in earth-sheltered homes. These are referred to in this book as the atrium (or courtyard) plan, the elevational plan, and the penetra – tional plan. The atrium design is an underground structure in which an atrium serves as the focus of the house and the entry into the dwelling. Unlike the other two design types, the courtyard design offers an open feeling because it has four walls that give exposure to daylight. The subgrade open area, a central outdoor courtyard, is the entrance into the home and is surrounded by the major living spaces. The windows and glass doors that are on the exposed walls facing the courtyard provide light, solar heat, outside views, and access via a stairway from the ground level. Atrium homes are usually covered with less than 3 ft of earth and provide ample access to natural ventilation, primarily because there is no benefit in energy efficiency from greater depths (Fig. 13.4).
The elevational plan is a bermed and roof-covered structure that typically has a glazed, south-facing entry. The other sides and roof
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floor plan
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are typically covered with earth. The exposed front of the house, usually facing south, allows the sun to light and heat the interior. The floor plan is arranged so that common areas and bedrooms share light and heat from the southern exposure. One drawback is that the northern portions of the house may have reduced daylight and limited internal air circulation unless a custom-designed fresh air ventilation system is installed. Skylights and an open floor plan can help alleviate these problems. Historically, a structure designed in this way has been the most popular and the most economical to build of all earth-sheltered structures. Contemporary
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floor plan
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designs are now more adventurous; two-story plans, cathedral ceilings, and vaults are slowly becoming the norm (Fig. 13.5).
In the penetrational plan, the house is built at ground level or partially above grade and is bermed to shelter the exterior walls that are not facing south. Earth covers the entire house except around the windows and doors. This design allows cross-ventilation opportunities and access to natural light from more than one side of the house (Fig. 13.6).
The most efficient designs reveal that an airtight wood stove or a small efficient forced-air furnace may be all that is necessary to provide supplemental heat. The only electrical demands come from a small blower that circulates the heat from the wood stove throughout the house. Some homes also have incorporated radiant floor heat, small geoexchange systems, or area heaters in the prime
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Figure 13.6 Penetrational earth-sheltered home. (McGraw – Hill, Inc.) |
living areas. Supplemental heat sources also may be preferred in the bathroom areas.
Adequate air exchange must be planned carefully when building an earth-sheltered dwelling. Generally well-planned natural or mechanical ventilation (by exhaust fans) can dissipate ordinary odors. Any combustion appliances that are installed should be sealed combustion units that have a direct source of outside air for combustion. It is mandatory that the combustion gases are vented directly to the outside. Ventilation and exhaust systems for radon presence also must be addressed in earth-sheltered house design and site selection.
Energy-efficiency claims have far too many variables to rely on one set of statistics in reference to this overview. Typical results based on data gathered for this book show that homeowners may save up to 80 percent in heating and cooling costs as compared with conventional homes, depending on the number, orientation, and treatment of openings. The thermal mass of the earth ensures that the home will never drop to less than +50°F without heat, even in mid-winter.3
Additional insulation in an earth-sheltered home will depend on the climate, house design, and construction materials used. For example, cold spots can be eliminated in the structure by specifying 3" of polystyrene insulation placed over the exterior concrete walls prior to backfilling and 6" of insulation over the roof covered by 3 ft of dirt.3
Although specifications will be designer-specific, one builder typically constructs homes with a standard 8-ft-high wall of 8M-thick poured-in-place concrete, designed for a minimum of 650 lb/ft2 lateral load.4 The standard ceiling is 10 to 12" of concrete designed for a vertical load of 790 lb/ft2. This system also allows for a minimum of 3 ft of earth cover.4
Studies show that earth-sheltered houses may be more cost-effective in climates that have significant temperature extremes and low humidity, such as the Rocky Mountains and northern Great Plains. The earth temperatures vary much less than air temperatures in these areas, accentuating the design advantages of the earth berm as a thermal mass, thereby eliminating the need for a more complex heating, ventilation, and air-conditioning (HVAC) system.
Topography plays an important role in site selection. For example, a modest slope requires more excavation than a steep one, whereas a flat site needs the most extensive excavation. Research suggests that the most ideal site is one that has a south-facing slope in a region with moderate to long winters. Construction in other regions or facing in other directions uses skylights and a more complex HVAC system (Figs. 13.7 and 13.8).
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Figure 13.7 Earth shelter on a flat site with berm. (Davis Caves Construction, Inc.) |
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Figure 13.8 Earth shelter on a steep slope. (Davis Caves Construction, Inc.) |
Soil tests must be performed prior to site or design selection because some types of soil are more suitable than others for earth – sheltered construction. For example, the best soils are granular, such as sand and gravel. These soils compact well for bearing the weight of the construction materials and are very permeable, allowing water to drain quickly. The poorest soils are cohesive, like clay, which may expand when wet and has poor permeability. If clay is encountered on site, it is recommended that a porous backfill such as sand or gravel or a drainage mat be used.
Groundwater is also an important factor. Besides building above the water table, choosing a site where the water will naturally drain away from the building is the best way to avoid water pressure against underground walls. Swales and drainage systems must be designed to run water away from the structure to reduce the frequency and length of time the water remains in contact with the building’s exterior.
There are a number of waterproofing systems in use today. Although many systems are effective, the best option will possess the following characteristics:
1. Long life-expectancy underground
2. Resealing capacity at underground temperatures
3. Good crack-bridging capability
4. Durability or protection during backfilling
Such systems include but are not limited to
1. Rubberized asphalt (Bituthene)
2. Plastic sheets such as high-density polyethylene and high-den – sity polyethylene
3. Liquid polyurethanes
4. EPDM membranes
5. Bentonite
Installation standards and practices
The characteristics of the site, climate, soils, design, and budget will aid in determining the construction materials to be used. Earth – sheltered houses will require stronger, more durable construction materials than above-grade conventional homes because they must be able to withstand the stress imposed by the surrounding earth. When soil is wet or frozen, it exerts greater pressure on the walls, ceiling, and floors of such a building than the pressure that already exists. Pressure also increases with depth, so a material such as concrete may be the best choice, although reinforced masonry, wood, and steel are also suitable if properly engineered.
Cast-in-place concrete has the most advantages as a construction material. Minimal joints, durability, fire resistance, material strength, and thermal mass qualities are ideal for earth-sheltered design. It also provides a good surface for applying waterproofing. If additional insulation is used, it must be protected to withstand the pressure and moisture of the surrounding ground. Masonry products such as brick or concrete masonry units are also used, but the necessary sealing of mortar joints can be problematic. Although wood can cost less than other materials, it does not offer the strength that a material such as steel does, so it may not be the best choice for structural material in some houses. Steel can be used for beams, bar joists, columns, and concrete reinforcement. Protection against corrosion is required if it is exposed to the elements or to groundwater.
Depending on the material selection, earth-sheltered houses can be made virtually fire-resistant. Concrete or masonry shells, concrete slab floors, and steel-framed interior walls sheathed with type X or fiber-reinforced gypsum board will eliminate most ignition sources. Special selection of furnishings is necessary to guarantee a comprehensive fire-resistance design.
Rammed Earth
Rammed earth is a building technique that dates back to at least 7000 B. c. in Pakistan. Portions of the Great Wall of China, as well as a five-story hotel built in Germany in 1837, also were constructed of rammed earth. Even in the United States, thousands of rammed-earth houses were built during the Great Depression.1
It is important to explain that a rammed-earth wall assembly is not an insulator in the true sense of the definition. The actual insulating value (the resistance to the transmission of heat applied to one side of the wall to the other side) is poor. As mentioned earlier, earth walls are actually good capacitors, serving as good, but temporary, heat-storage masses. Commonly referred to as the flywheel effect (the ability to absorb energy and reradiate it over time), the earth can store the energy for constant slow reradiation, resulting in a very smooth temperature swing curve for the building. This principle also applies to the proper placement of thermal mass elements such as floors and interior walls that even out temperature variations in a building due to the temperature storage capabilities of the building’s mass.
In a real building application, the interior temperature will be an average of the high and low temperatures outside from several days earlier. This is called the thermal-lag effect While the outdoor temperature may vary 30 to 40°F in a 24-hour period, the inside changes will vary only a few degrees. Thus, when the temperature is 90°F in the day and 60°F at night for several days, the inside of the building will approximate 75°F. The thermal lag is proportional to the wall thickness but influenced by the solar gain. In Arizona, for example, the thermal lag on a 24M-thick rammed-earth wall can be up to 3 days. Designers state that this is most effective when the extreme temperature swings between day and night are over 40°F.3 Additional insulation also may be necessary, depending on the extent the passive solar principles are applied to the overall design of the home.
Rammed-earth walls are formed in place by pounding damp soil into movable, reusable frames (formwork) with manual or machine – powered pneumatic tampers. The earth material is typically mixed with about 8 percent water and 3 percent cement, although this may vary depending on the soil used. The earth is compacted (tamped) in 4- to 6-in lifts in enclosed formwork similar to that of cast-in-place concrete. Also referred to as stabilized earth, these walls achieve compressive strengths estimated to be about half that of concrete. The walls act as a thermal mass, usually requiring no additional insulation. Rammed-earth walls can be 12 to 36" thick but are typically 18 or 24" thick. The final density is usually around 125 lb/ft3, giving the wall excellent thermal properties. The virtually maintenance-free walls do not require additional finishes unless aesthetically desired. They are also fire-resistant and extremely durable.1
One difficulty with the rammed-earth method is that strict limits have to be placed on shrinkage to eliminate cracking. Often cement or hydrated lime is added to improve durability, but successful structures are built using suitable soils without such additives. A sandy, crumbly soil (with a clay content around 15 to 30 percent) may be the best choice because of its good workability and minimal shrinkage.
Rammed-earth walls can be constructed in one of three typical systems:
1. Individual panels of earth are enclosed within a framework of cast-in-place concrete.
2. The earth walls are fully reinforced with an integral grid of steel reinforcing rods.
3. A continuous solid-earth wall is topped with a bond beam of reinforced concrete.
The finished solid-mass earthen wall, as it comes out of the form, may be finished with exterior stucco and interior plaster. Newer design trends seem to indicate that the natural finish of the rammed-earth wall is growing in popularity. In climates where rainfall can be extreme, walls should be protected against saturation with roof overhangs and elevated foundations. If waterproofing is omitted, moisture may penetrate all the way to the inside surface of the walls during prolonged wind-driven rainstorms.
Additional costs incurred will vary depending on the site, the height and complexity of the wall system, the available soil, and the seismic safety factors. The cost increase over conventional wood-frame construction will be a minimum of 10 percent.
It is important to recognize that rammed-earth construction is a “made by hand” product and will exhibit the inconsistencies that characterize any handmade item. For example, the color and texture of the finished wall will vary. Some areas may be rough or inconsistent in density. Construction tolerances will need to be more forgiving than those used in typical construction practice. Shrinkage cracks, honeycombing, and voids are also likely to occur.
PISE (Pneumatically Impacted Stabilized Earth)
Another form of monolithic earth wall construction is PISE (Pneumatically Impacted Stabilized Earth). A single form is constructed to shape the interior wall surface. Wire reinforcement is then attached, and a mix of earth and cement is sprayed onto the outside. A patented process developed by David Easton, PISE uses a gunite hose (similar to the hose used to spray concrete to wall forms or pools) to directly apply rammed earth into the frames. Using onesided formwork and high-pressure air delivery, trained crews can complete up to 1200 ft2 of 18M-thick wall per day. A training program is required before a subcontractor is qualified to shoot PISE walls.
Earthships
Earthships is the popular term for what are actually rammed-earth tire homes. This construction system, using passive solar design and recycled materials, was developed by Michael Reynolds of Solar Survival Architecture. The environmentally conscious system uses recycled automobile tires filled with compacted earth for thermal mass and structure. The homes can be dug into south-facing hillsides or located on flat sites and bermed to obtain additional thermal mass.
The construction system is actually very simple. The first course of tires of any tire wall must be leveled and dug into undisturbed soil. Tires are laid flat and rammed full of approximately three wheelbarrow-loads of soil. Each tire weighs about 350 lb, and the tires are set in a running-bond fashion. All tire walls that are an integral part of the roofed building should have a continuous wood or concrete bond beam serving as a top plate.
Between 500 and 2500 tires are used in a rammed-earth tire home (for homes of 1000 to 4000 ft2). Earth is bermed against the outsides of the tire walls, while 2 to 4" of plaster or stucco cover the inside of the tire wall. (Foam insulation also can be applied to exposed exterior or interior walls and covered with stucco.) The building is framed in wood on the south side and roofed with metal to collect rainwater. Aluminum or tin cans are also used for filling in concrete walls that are not load-bearing. Other systems include integrated wastewater treatment, photovoltaic electrical systems, solar hot water, and passive solar heating.
Indoor air quality and other potential environmental problems are still being studied. Published research at present seems to suggest that rubber degradation, carbon black vapor, or other chemical off-gassing may not pose a serious health hazard in this type of construction.5
Appendix
Davis Caves Construction, Inc.
Marty and Ruthanne Davis
P. O. Box 69
Armington, IL 61721
309-392-2574
Fax: 309-392-2578
Email: daviscaves@daviscaves. com
The Energy Efficient and Renewable Energy Clearinghouse (EREC)
P. O. Box 3048 Merrifield, VA 22116 800-DOE-EREC (363-3732)
Fax: 703-893-0400 E-mail: doe. erec@nciinc. com
Earth Sheltered Technology, Inc.
Jerry Hickock, President Box 5142
Mankato, MN 56001
800-345-7203
507-345-7203
Fax: 507-345-8302
http:/ /www. earthshelteredtech. com/
Rainforest Action Network 221 Pine Street Suite 500 San Francisco, CA 94104 415-398-4404 Fax: 415-398-2732 rainforest@ran. org
Rammed Earth Networks, Inc.
David Easton
101 South Coombs, Suite N
Napa, CA 94559
707-224-2532
Fax: 707-258-1878
www. rammedearthworks. com
Rocky Mountain Research Center RO. Box 4694 Missoula, MT 59806 406-728-5951
Solar Survival Architecture
Michael E. Reynolds, Principal Architect
P. O. Box 1041
Taos, NM 87571
505-751-0462
Fax: 505-751-1005
http:/ /www. earthship. org/
http: / /www. earthshipbiotecture. com /
Quentin Branch
Rammed Earth Solar Homes, Inc.
1232 E. Linden Street Tucson, AZ 85719 520-623-6889 Fax: 520-623-3224
E-mail: Info@RammedEarthHomes. com http:/ /www. rammedearthhomes. com/
The American Underground-Construction Association 511 11th Avenue South, Suite 248 Minneapolis, MN 55415 612-339-5403
References
1. Rainforest Action Network Web site: http://www. ran. org/ran_campaigns/ old_growth / earth_arc. html.
2. Quentin Branch, Rammed Earth Solar Homes, Inc., 520-623-6889
3. Earth Sheltered Technology, Inc., Web site: http:/ /www. earthshelteredtech. com/ faq. htm.
4. Davis Caves Construction, Inc., Web site: http:/ /www. daviscaves. com/
5. “Use of Scrap Tires in Civil and Environmental Construction,” Environmental Geo-technics Report No. 95-2, Geotechnical Engineering Program, Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of Wisconsin-Madison, May 10, 1995. Available at http:/ /www. earthship. org/pages/offgas. htm.
Chapter
Coatings
Ceramic Coatings
Insulating coatings (more accurately named reflective paint coatings) have been used in industrial applications for years. Until recently, the white roofs seen on many a yellow school bus were perhaps the closest this innovative technology made it into the residential environment. These ceramic coatings basically reflect solar radiant energy and are now being found in a number of residential applications. The ceramic technology in this fluid-applied insulation is a “cousin” to the ceramic particles in the heat shield tiles used on the space shuttles to block heat during reentry into the Earth’s atmosphere. These coatings contain hollow ceramic bubbles that have a tremendous ability to reflect and dissipate heat. Extremely durable and easy to apply, the paint’s thermal properties of reflection, refraction, and dissipation make it a good insulator for walls, roofs, and even interiors. Ceramic-filled paint provides benefits year-round, but it is particularly effective at blocking the radiant heat from the summer sun. It is not intended to replace thermal mass insulations, however, especially in northern climates where retaining indoor heat is of primary concern.
Most products consist of a 100 percent acrylic elastomeric emulsion containing ceramic microspheres that range in size from 10 to 100 |mm. Since ceramic particles block radiant heat, it is difficult to give this paint a typical R-value rating, yet tests demonstrate a significant drop between inside and outside temperatures of wall and roof installations. These coatings are typically nontoxic, although
there are epoxy-based and urethane-based coatings for industrial applications. The elastomeric coatings for residential use possess excellent resistance to changes in weather.
Ceramic-filled paints for residential application are available as acrylic, acrylic-elastomeric, and urethane – or epoxy-based. The water-based products are the most popular for residential use at present because of their ease of use and cleanup.
Certain characteristics among all types make the idea of an “insulating paint” actually possible. Ceramic paint has tiny microsized hollow ceramic particles or flat platelets in a water-based acrylic vehicle. In the paint can the spheres are suspended, making the paint look and feel like ordinary paint. When the paint is applied, the spheres or platelets move toward the surface to create a heat-reflecting and heat-dissipating surface. As the paint dries on a surface, the microspheres pack together underneath to create an insulating barrier.
Residential consumers have reported that the dried paint looks just like typical exterior house paint. Many of these coatings are designed for high build and can stretch and contract substantially without breaking or wrinkling. Most products can be rolled or brushed on, but spraying will depend on the specific manufacturer’s instructions.
Ceramic-filled coatings can seal a substrate and provide a waterproof surface. They are also suitable on metal surfaces where expansion and extreme weathering characteristics, including resistance to ponding, are important. Most products provide a 10- or 15- year limited warranty against chipping, flaking, and peeling. The manufacturer’s full written warranty should be reviewed for more specific information.
R-value ratings are not available for liquid coatings, although manufacturers report a simplistic variety of equivalences in their product-specific literature. These range from equivalent R-values of R-10 to R-24. Color choice influences the effectiveness, with white coatings providing the higher R-values.
Ceramic paints are designed to protect against radiant heat and have a reduced effect on conductive heat. The use of these coatings is much more effective in keeping heat out in the summer, but they will, to a lesser degree, keep heat in during the winter.
Color selections are limited. One manufacturer provides only an antique white that is tinted with up to 8 oz of colorant per gallon. Bright white is the most efficient, but tests show that reflective properties are dramatically decreased after minimal color is added.
Fire resistance
American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM) Standard E84- 87 tests of products reviewed for this book report that ceramic paints have both flame spread and smoke development ratings of 5.
Installation standards and practices
Ceramic-filled paint typically is applied at a thickness of up to 15 mil, much thicker than ordinary house paint. This heavy coat often covers small cracks and imperfections and to a small degree even reduces noise indoors. Additional paint can be applied but may not be cost-effective after two or three coats.
Temperature recommendations for application vary among products, typically to a maximum air temperature of 110°F. As with all products, manufacturers’ instructions need to be followed for proper application procedures.
Paint Additives
As presented in the Preface of this book, the specific mention of a commercial name does not imply endorsement, nor does failure to mention a manufacturer imply criticism. Research for this book, however, revealed only one manufacturer of paint additives for insulating coatings.
Product description
INSULADD is a ceramic microsphere paint additive that is mixed with ordinary paint to block heat transfer through surfaces. Formulated for use with interior and exterior latex house paints, this additive is also suited for industrial coatings, roof coatings, epoxy, urethane, and high-temperature paints.
As in premixed ceramic coatings, INSULADD works by refracting, reflecting, and dissipating radiant heat. The adhesion, useful service life, coverage, or color of the base paint is reportedly not affected by the additive. INSULADD is suitable with all interior and exterior paints, regardless of the brand.
The mixing process is very simple: Stir one bottle of the additive in with 1 gal of paint. If a sprayer is to be used for paint application, a slightly larger spray tip than normal is needed, and all screen filters should be removed. Two coats of paint with INSULADD in each coat are recommended for the best results. A coverage rate of 200 ft2/gal for most house paints on smooth surfaces should be achieved.
The manufacturer claims that an equivalent R-value of R-20 can be obtained relevant to radiant heat gain when INSULADD is mixed with a light-colored house paint.
Appendix
INSULADD Tech Traders, Inc.
307 Holly Road Vero Beach, FL 32963 888-748-5233 Fax: 561-231-5233 E-mail: info@insuladd. com http:/ /www. insuladd. com
Nationwide Chemical Coating Mfrs., Inc.
6067 17th Street East
Bradenton, Florida 34203-5002
800-423-7264
941-753-7500
Fax: 941-753-1773
Email: natchem@compuserve. com
http:/ / www. nationwidecoatings. com
Thermal Control Coatings
P. O. Box 250052
Atlanta, GA 30325
404-846-0044
Fax: 404-365-0423
E-mail: info@thermalcontrol. com
Chapter
Integrated Insulation Systems
This chapter explores several products and methods that could not be categorized by conventional means. Integrated insulation systems refer to an insulation application that is of and by itself all – inclusive as a wall or roof system assembly. The insulation is not applied in the traditional construction sense but is integral to the construction assembly. Without the insulation, there is not a wall or roof. Structural insulated panels and insulating concrete form – work are basically hybrid systems, using familiar insulation products and construction materials to form a complete shell assembly. The third system discussed, straw bale construction, has been in use for over 100 years and is a unique commodity in that the material used to achieve the insulation value is also the material used to achieve structural integrity. As mentioned earlier, the use herein of a commercial name does not imply endorsement, nor does failure to mention a name imply criticism. The proprietary nomenclature is included to provide clarity only.
Structural Insulated Panels
Structural insulated panels, also known as stressed skins, stress – skin panels, sandwich panels, and structural foam panels, generi – cally are referred to as SIPs. The basic building unit of this system is a sandwich-type panel typically made of two “skins” of wood structural sheathing with a foam core that combines the structural, wall, and roof sheathing with the insulation in a single construction
step. (Other materials can be used as “skins,” as discussed later in this chapter.) The system provides efficient solutions to such concerns as energy efficiency and dwindling natural resources while saving construction time and labor that results in cost savings not only to the contractor but also to the consumer. SIPs, emerging as a unique alternative building technology for residential building envelope construction, are also being used in panelized housing and commercial and multifamily projects.
SIP technology was first used in residential construction as early as 1952, when Alden B. Dow, architect and son of the founder of the Dow Chemical Company, began designing homes to be constructed of SIPs. The first of these was built in Midland, Michigan, that year, using foam-core SIPs for exterior walls, interior partitions, and roofs.
The energy crunch of the 1970s provided the opportunity for SIP manufacturers to gain additional market share, but it was not until the 1990s that the panelized system gained acceptance. A study prepared for the Structural Insulated Panel Association (SIPA) revealed that SIP production in the United States in 1991 was 15 million ft2, equivalent to all the walls and roofs in about 4000 homes. This rate is expected to grow to levels ranging from 50 to 112 million ft2 by the year-end 2000, depending on the aggressiveness with which the industry markets its products. The increase in manufacturing space for SIP lamination and fabrication reinforces this trend, growing from 555,108 ft2 in January 1996 to 1,148,108 ft2 as of October 1999.1
SIPs are also one of the featured technologies of the Partnership for Advancing Technology in Housing (PATH) initiative. PATH is a public-private partnership that includes government (Department of Energy, Housing and Urban Development, Environmental Protection Agency, Labor, Commerce, Federal Emergency Management Agency, and Department of Defense) and industry working together to develop, demonstrate, and deploy housing technologies and practices so that homes can be built more cheaply, more environmentally sustainably, with more disaster-resistance, and to provide a safer working environment.
Although product types vary in the industry, the common characteristics of all SIPs are two exterior skins adhered to a rigid plastic foam core (Fig. 15.1). The skin provides the tensile and compressive
EXTERIOR
SHEATHING
strength, whereas the foam core provides the rigidity. This is analogous to the I-beam, with the skins performing not unlike the flanges and the foam core corresponding to with the web.
Panels are available in a variety of sizes and thicknesses depending on application requirements, from 2 to 12" thick, and in sizes from the standard 4 X 8 ft to 8 X 24 ft. This is ideal for their primary application: the exterior structural walls and roofs of low-rise residential and commercial buildings (Figs. 15.2 and 15.3).
The skins of a panel can be of the same or differing materials. The most commonly used are oriented strandboard (OSB) for exterior and interior faces. Waferboard, plywood, sheet metal, cementitious fiberboard, and gypsum board are also available from various manufacturers. The rigid foam cores that provide the insulation value are composed of a variety of foam products depending on the proprietary product’s manufacturer (Fig. 15.4).
|
Figure 15.2 SIP wall panel. (.R-Control Building Systems) |
These include the following:
■ Expanded polystyrene (EPS), also known as headboard
■ Extruded polystyrene (XPS), commonly referred to as green board by Amoco or Styrofoam or blue board by Dow
■ Polyurethane
■ Polyisocyanurates, a polyurethane derivative characterized by its yellowish color in foil-faced applications
(Agriboard uses compressed agricultural fiberboard as a structural insulated panel core bonded to oriented strandboard skins. Manufactured from the straw of cereal grains and native grasses, the product was discontinued in 1999, but similar straw-based products eventually may return to the market.2)
|
Figure 15.3 SIP wall panel (.R-Control Building Systems) |
EPS is used most commonly because of its low cost and simple manufacturing process, but EPS cores, with a lower R-value, must be made thicker to be equivalent to the higher insulation properties of other foam products. Nevertheless, foam products have better insulation per inch of thickness than fiberglass and better insulation at lower temperatures and higher humidity than fiberglass for decreased energy use for heating. As a result, the U. S Department of Energy (DOE) and Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) are both proponents of the use of SIP in construction (see EPA/DOE Energy Star Program). Polyurethane and polyiso – cyanurates are more heavily scrutinized as to actual R-value because blowing agents are used in the production of these two materials that actually evaporate over time, thereby reducing the advertised R-value.
With the high insulation value and low infiltration, a SIP home can be cooled or heated with much smaller heating, ventilating, and air-conditioning (HVAC) equipment and much less electrical
|
Figure 15.4 SIP. (.R-Control Building Systems) |
energy. Consequently, the homeowner’s electricity bill each month will be much less. The SIP home costs about 5 to 10 percent more initially, but this extra cost is quickly offset by additional savings in energy bills. Studies have shown that building with SIPs can result in homes that are up to 60 percent more efficient than site – built homes of comparable size. Wall panels can deliver R-values of R-14 to R-24 and roof R-values of up to R-41 or more, depending on the thickness of the foam core and the manufacturer’s system of fabrication.
Panel shipping is economical within a 300- to 500-mile radius, although due to limited manufacturing production availability, most manufacturers indicate that 30 percent or more of their business is shipped 1000 or more miles away. Structural panels typically bear a stamp indicating compliance with building standards and requirements.
SIPs are also recognized for their added security benefits by providing a solid barrier to intruders and vandals. The design of this panel, with its two skins over a foam core, is far more resistant to punching or cutting than the all-too-popular thin foam wall.
Prices vary depending on the panel composition and thickness. A typical engineer-stamped R-17, 35/8M-thick, 4′ X 8′ SIP will cost around $80 to $100 per panel.
SIPs are factory fabricated under controlled conditions, usually subject to a continuous program for quality control and supervision. Although manufacturing techniques vary among companies, two assembly processes are most prevalent: adhesive-bonding and foam-in-place.
The manufacturing process may vary slightly between manufacturers but typically begins with a large OSB panel on a trolley. Foam sheets are then placed on the OSB skin. After a structural – grade adhesive is applied, the rigid foam core is placed on top of a clean sheet of facing material, and the second panel (or skin) is positioned on the opposite side of the insulation core, completing the sandwich. Pressure is applied to the newly formed panel for some period of time. This is done with either an ingenous press (a vacuum on the bottom side and atmospheric pressure on the top) or a hydraulic press. Panels are then set aside until the adhesive has cured completely, about 24 hours.
With the foam-in-place method, the facing boards are held apart by panel-framing or specially made spacers. The chemical components of the foam core, together with a blowing agent, are combined and forced between the braced skins. The expanded insulation material forms a bond with the facing material without the use of any adhesives.
SIPs are capable of sustaining all types of loads that are typically imposed on walls, floors, roofs, and other load-bearing elements. They are essentially stressed-skin panels; the cores of rigid plastic foam provide shear strength, and the exterior skins of structural materials provide tensile and compressive strength. A panel’s structural composition can be compared with that of an I-beam.
The panel skins are analogous to the flanges of an I-beam, whereas the foam core is comparable with its web. The complete assembly, with exterior and interior faces properly laminated to the foam core, allows for a system that is structurally superior to conventional stud frame structures.
Panels used for exterior walls are load-bearing and can be used to form the entire wall. They also can be applied to framing as non – structural exterior insulated cladding or as a curtain wall. A load – bearing wall panel has superior axial load-bearing capacity, i. e., the strength to support vertical loads from the roof or floor above. A conventional framed wall is designed to support these vertical loads only through its studs. The exterior sheathing, if plywood, provides no contribution because it must have gaps between sheets and is not continuous. Other forms of sheathing are also discounted for the same reason. On the other hand the sheathing on SIPs can use all its capacity to support vertical loads because buckling is prevented by the continuous reinforcement action of the foam core.
The uniform, consistent composition of a SIP, with supportive sheathing on both sides of the core, is superior to a frame wall in racking resistance. The SIP sheathing is adhered to the foam core over the entirety of the panel, and edges are fixed to splines, resulting in the development of excellent racking resistance. This characteristic is an important attribute for resisting earthquake and hurricane forces.
SIPs exhibit other superior structural/strength characteristics. They are highly resistant to local loading. This is evident when one “thumps” a wall panel. The SIP will exhibit a uniform solid sound as opposed to a hollow sound between studs. This means that fasteners with proper anchors for railings, cabinets, fixtures, wall – mounted brackets, etc. can occur anywhere in a SIP wall, but only at studs or other reinforced locations in frame walls.
A SIP wall has great resistance against buckling and bending when compared with equivalent conventional stud construction. This means that a taller wall can be built without increasing wall thickness, or that a wall can resist greater perpendicular loads from such forces as hurricanes.
SIPs are virtually impervious to warping and shrinking and possess excellent dimensional stability. The DOE issues a warning, however, as to the problems with insect infestations. EPS, polyurethane, and polyisocyanurate provide an ideal environment for an insect nest. Insecticides need to be administered to the ground and, if available, the actual panel.3
The structural properties of SIPs are as beneficial in their roof applications as when they are used for walls. Flat or sloping roof panels can be stand-alone structures like wall panels or can span between framing members like rafters. When they form a sloping roof, they naturally create a cathedral ceiling on the interior. In bending, the thickness of the foam core dictates and limits the spanning distance by virtue of its shear strength and bond to the sheathing. Similarly, the depth of rafters limits conventional roof spans.
The horizontal loads imposed on buildings during earthquakes or extreme winds can be effectively resisted by the roof’s diaphragm action. This two-dimensional structural continuity provides rigidity and stability to the building as well as creating an uninterrupted layer over supporting beams or bearing members. Because SIPs provide the bending strength necessary to withstand live (snow) and dead (roofing and equipment) loads, they usually can span freely from the ridge beam to exterior walls or between widely spaced beams or purlins. If greater rigidity is required, SIPs may be manufactured with increased bending strengths and reduced deflection. In addition to wall and roof panels, SIPs can be used for floors and foundation walls when designed for these specialized applications.
The flammability of SIPs depends on the composition of the panel and the type of insulation used in the panel core. For example, EPS has a fire-retardant bead that is used in the manufacturing process and makes it self-extinguishing once the flame source has been removed. Building codes require installation of a thermal barrier, typically V2" gypsum wallboard, over the panels on the interior side for fire resistance for a 15-minute rating. A 1-hour fire resistive assembly can be achieved by adding two layers of 5/8" type-X gypsum board.4
Exposed EPS insulation is affected by intense fire-related heat. According to the DOE, EPS can deform at 167°F and subsequently melt at 200°F. Tests by Underwriter’s Laboratory (UL) indicate modest melting of 2" of the foam core in the vicinity of an intentionally set fire; however, the panel skins did not sustain notable damage elsewhere. Actual building fires have revealed that the EPS SIPs fared well.3 Another advantage of panel buildings over stick-frame buildings is that there are no air cavities in the walls to create a “chimney effect.”
SIPs also have demonstrated resistance to seismic activity. One SIP manufacturer has documentation of six homes that withstood the 7.2 magnitude earthquake in Kobe, Japan, in January 1995.
The foam plastic core of a SIP provides its insulation properties. Depending on the type of foam used (e. g., EPS, XPS, polyurethane, or isocyanurate), R-values are in the range of approximately 4 to 7 per inch of foam thickness. This results in superior energy performance characteristics in walls and roofs. For example, a 4V2M-thick SIP wall is often used as a substitute for a 2 X 4 stud wall. (A SIP wall with V2" of gypsum wallboard is 5" thick, as opposed to the 4V2" overall thickness of a wood stud wall.) Although both have 3V2" of insulation, the SIP wall has insulation R-values in the range of R – 14 to R-25, whereas the stud wall with fiberglass or mineral wool only has an R-value of R-11 to R-15.
The overall R-value of the stud wall must be downgraded to take into account the part of its area that is occupied by wood framing. This is anywhere between 15 and 18 percent of the wall in which there is no insulation. The core of a SIP, which usually has no stiffeners between splines, is filled entirely with rigid foam. This means there is no thermal bridging. Moreover, when compared with stick-built structures, SIPs have fewer gaps, less settling or compression, less moisture absorption or dust saturation, and fewer cavities that permit convection or air circulation. All these characteristics would reduce insulation performance if present in a wall system. Oak Ridge National Laboratory tests suggest that a SIP performs at 97 percent of the stated R-value, losing only 3 percent to nail holes, seams, splines, and wiring cavities.5
The results are evident in both quantified and empirical data. For example, the overall R-value of a conventional wall with 2X4 studs and 3V2" of R-13 fiberglass, as indicated in the Thermal Envelope Compliance Guide to the Model Energy Code, is R-13.1. An equivalent SIP wall with 3V2" of extruded polystyrene foam (R – value = 17.5) is R-20.
As mentioned earlier, EPS is the most common panel core. A 472M-thick panel provides an R-value of R-14 to R-17, a 6V2n-thick panel provides R-22 to R-25, an 874M-thick panel provides R-29 to R – 36, a 10V4n-thick panel provides R-37 to R-45, and a 1274M-thick panel provides an R-value of 44. (The range of R-values is contingent on the specific manufacturer.) Needless to say, these panels also offer superior acoustical properties because noise transmission is diminished owing to the wall’s thickness.
Other nonspecific factors seem to influence the superior performance by SIPs when compared with stick-built wall assemblies with the same R-value. This may be due to the differences between foams and fibers in the degradation items that are not included in R-value calculations, such as gaps, moisture, dust, settling, and others.
This was clearly illustrated in a recent field test conducted by the Florida Solar Energy Center (FSEC) under sponsorship of the DOE. Two identical houses were built side by side in Louisville, Kentucky, simultaneously, by the same builder. One had conventional framing, and the other was built with SIPs. However, wall and roof thicknesses were adjusted so that both had the same calculated R-values. Both houses were monitored for heat loss performance, and the SIP house dramatically outperformed the frame house. More important, efforts to forecast seasonal heating energy savings showed a 14 to 20 percent savings for the SIP house in Kentucky’s climate. In the published report, the researchers stated that "… there seem to be other factors, which remain unaccounted for, which cause the panel house to use less heat energy.” Homeowners throughout the United States are experiencing benefits though lower heating costs, reduced draft, and greater comfort.
Numerous SIPA members, for example, have cited testimonials from owners of SIP homes whose fuel bills have been as much as 40 to 60 percent below those of conventional construction homeowners.
It is widely recognized by energy-performance specialists that urethane foam and XPS are subject to thermal drift, or outgassing of blowing agents from foam cells over time. As a result, the R-val – ue of these cores falls gradually until the thermal drift ceases to have an impact and there is no further degradation. EPS cores are not subject to thermal drift, which results in a constant R-value. EPS foam-core panels have a nominal R-value of 4 per inch. Polyurethane and isocyanurate foam-core panels have a nominal R-value of 6 to 7 per inch. Both contain a blowing agent that escapes over time, subsequently lowering the R-value of each of these foam products.3 XPS cores have R-values of 5 per inch, indicating that this is the long-term constant after all thermal drift adjustments. Producers of other foams also quote R-values at the fully aged rate, but exact values need to be confirmed by designers.
Unlike fiberglass batts, SIPs are resistant to moisture absorption. Although every attempt should be made to ensure that the panels are kept dry, SIPs will retain their R-value even if some moisture absorption does occur.
Wood frame walls are required to have vapor barriers installed “on the warm side” of fiberglass or mineral wool to prevent water vapor penetration, which may condense and degrade insulation performance. SIPs do not need vapor barriers at all because moisture does not materially affect performance.
In reality, except in such extreme climates as those in Florida and Alaska, it is difficult to identify “the warm side” of fibrous insulation. In Virginia, for example, the warm side is on the inside of the wall in the winter and on the outside in the summer. In Colorado, it can be on the inside at night and the outside during the day. Whenever the vapor barrier is on the incorrect side, water vapor can penetrate and degrade the insulation. Because of nail holes, minute cracks, holes in framing for wiring, and cutouts for receptacles and other penetrations, it may be virtually impossible to prevent water vapor penetration of fibrous insulation, a concern nonexistent with SIP.
This is also a critical issue with typical stick-built roofs. An airspace is required by code to protect the roof system. Because of the presence of water vapor, moisture can condense in the roof system. An airspace is not necessary in SIP roof construction because air vapor cannot enter the system. Another concern would be heat buildup in the roofing mass when asphalt shingles are used. This is a critical issue during the summer months, since heat can prematurely age some roofing products. Several major roof-shingle manufacturers have approved the use of SIPs and are upholding their shingle warranties.
The foam core in a SIP extends uninterrupted in all directions throughout the entire panel, which can be as large as 8 X 24 ft in area. Breaks in the foam insulation occur less frequently, usually only at panel connections, which are few, or at openings. A frame wall has connections wherever the sheathing or gypsum wallboard joints occur—every 4 ft or so. And because of the nature of panel assembly, the foam is tightly packed against both sheathing faces and perimeter joints.
SIPs form structural envelopes that are extremely tight against infiltration of air, a major source of energy loss. This is primarily due to the large uninterrupted areas of insulation in the panels. In frame walls not only are there frequent joints between sheathing at studs (a weak link in envelope continuity), but there are also nail or screw penetrations at every stud and on both sides of the wall.
Moreover, common points of leakage such as electrical outlet vents and other envelope penetrations often are more difficult to seal in frame structures. Even if these penetrations are poorly sealed in a SIP structure, the insulation performance is not compromised by air circulation into the insulation cavity. This results in exceptionally tight SIP houses, as compared with framed structures, that exhibit very low levels of air infiltration with resulting increases in building energy efficiency and interior comfort.
In the FSEC test in Kentucky, the SIP house proved to have a natural infiltration rate of 0.21 air changes per hour. This compares remarkably well with the average for new houses, in the range of 0.5 to 0.7. More important, however, it is even lower than the recommended minimum of 0.35 (according to ASHRAE Standard 62-1989). Further, it may require a fresh air ventilation system to provide makeup air, according to FSEC researchers. Large differences in air infiltration rates can have dramatic impacts on energy consumption. For example, a difference in air infiltration rates of 0.4 air changes per hour (0.21 versus 0.61) between a SIP house and a conventional house can represent fuel consumption savings in the range of $95 per year (in Texas) to $181 per year (in Minnesota) for a 1540-ft2 house.
Some people may question why one would build a very tight house and then install a fan to ventilate it. It is important to understand that relying on random leaks in the building and unknown pressure forces due to wind and temperature does not ensure adequate ventilation. Thus it often leads to overventilation and high energy bills or underventilation with possible moisture and health concerns. Further, with leaky duct systems, there can be pressure imbalances that can cause heating systems to malfunction, resulting in health and safety problems.
SIP construction can be considered an engineered system. Innovation in the plastics and wood products industry is largely responsible for the rapid growth of new products now used in SIPs: first, plywood and, since 1980, oriented strandboard. The development of these products has a common goal: the need to conserve scarce resources and provide for the optimization of the forest. SIP technology allows society to use forest products that are fast growing and thus renewable. Panel manufacturers are able to remove the strength-reducing characteristics of wood (i. e., knots, splits) and produce superior engineered products. This turns moderate-cost, low-quality hardwoods and plantation thinnings into superior structural building components. As a result, a greater amount of the tree is used, and fewer wood fibers are used to produce a more consistent product than that used in conventional framing.
It is also important to note that the skins of SIPs are made of oriented strandboard (OSB). This OSB is made with new-growth “junk” wood (aspen, jack pine, etc.) that can be regenerated in 5 to 10 years rather than old-growth lumber such as redwood, ponderosa pine, or yellow pine, which are necessary in stick-frame construction. The panels use one-fourth as much wood as stick-framing methods. The EPS is manufactured without the use or production of chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) or hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs). Since the insulation is bonded to the sheathing, there is no shrinkage of materials, saving time and money.
Quality-monitored manufacturing systems allow SIP producers to enhance the environment through the efficient use of valuable resources. Systematic design and production techniques significantly reduce process and construction site waste, requiring less landfill disposal, contributing to our country’s resource and solid waste management goals. Designers can optimize the building design using SIPs, resulting in more efficient use of construction materials.
SIP openings for windows and doors are often precut at the factory, reducing the expense of debris disposal from a job site. During panel manufacture, the foam-core materials are optimized for the particular application. Waste materials are limited through creative design and resource management. Sometimes leftover panel pieces and scraps are used for do-it-yourself retrofit applications or even dog houses. Often, unused foam that may be generated in the manufacturing process can be returned to the foam manufacturer, who can reprocess it into appropriate applications or send it to a recycler for further reprocessing. Recycling is one method for handling waste. However, if recycling is not a satisfactory option given a site’s geographic location, foam plastic can be safely land-filled. SIP foams are stable and will not biodegrade or create leachate or methane gas, the two major problems with all landfills. Construction materials are often used in “stable landfills” where the ground is later reclaimed for parks, stadiums, and other similar applications.
In addition, SIP foams can be incinerated safely at regulated waste-to-energy facilities. Its energy value (greater than some soft coals) can provide a secondary fuel source for greater savings to the local utility company. EPS burns cleanly and produces almost no toxic ash. It does not require hazardous landfill disposal.
Noise pollution, the introduction into buildings of unwanted sound, is another form of environmental pollution that concerns many people. SIPs are excellent barriers to airborne sound penetration. This is due to the combination of their closed construction (no air movement in the panel wall) and extremely tight joint connections.
The formaldehyde that is emitted by the OSB skins is less than 0.1 part per million (ppm), well below levels established as acceptable by the U. S. Department of Housing and Urban Development. The rigid foam cores and the structural water-based adhesives used in the manufacturing process have no formaldehyde content.6
The issue of air quality is a concern to the public, regulating agencies, SIP producers, and foam manufacturers. EPS foam cores are produced using materials that have never had any adverse effect on the protective stratospheric ozone layer. All U. S. extruders of polystyrene foam had switched to HCFC-142b by 1991, two years ahead of EPA deadlines for CFC phase-out. HCFC-142b is 90 percent less harmful to the ozone layer than its predecessor, CFC – 12. Plastic industry members are working to exceed current and future air quality standards through improvements in materials, processing, and control equipment.
Installation standards and practices
Panels are used in construction either as “generic panels” or as parts of a “package unit.” Generic panels are produced in varying thicknesses and different material combinations but in standard sizes such as 4′ X 8′. Each panel has explicit physical properties and strength characteristics, and typically panels are sold to builders and others without knowledge of the end application. This is similar to the sale of plywood panels to builders, who are informed of their strength and properties by the manufacturer’s load tables and other standards. It is the builder’s responsibility to cut the plywood panels and install them properly in buildings. (One manufacturer actually verifies the panel’s engineering and application prior to delivery.)
A packaged unit is quite different. The plans of the entire building are analyzed, and panels are designed specifically for each wall, roof, or other application. The manufacturer, often with CAD-gen – erated shop drawings, can precut each panel to precise dimensions, with cutouts for window or door openings. Edges, angles, and all
other complex configurations can be cut at the factory. Then all the panels required for an entire building are packaged and shipped to the construction site. This could easily be a great distance, although it is likely that sources of panel production or distribution are locally available to most builders.
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Panels are light in weight, generally under 4 lb/ft2 of panel (472" thick), and most walls are installed by hand. Connections are made with adhesives and screw fasteners (Figs. 15.5 and 15.6). Panels also may be lifted into position by crane, hoist, or other equipment (Fig. 15.7). Cranes are particularly useful in setting roof panels or lifting bundles of panels to upper floors. SIP walls and roofs are erected quickly and made weathertight very early in the construction sequence.
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Figure 15.6 SIP screw fasteners. (.E-Control Building Systems) |
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Figure 15.7 SIP installation. (.R-Control Building Systems) |
Construction time savings are evidenced when interior gypsum board or other finish is installed. The continuous nailing surface of the OSB skin allows the framer, gypsum wallboard crew, etc. to be unconcerned with locating studs for screwing or nailing.
The exterior finishes of walls, applied to OSB or other sheathing, can include the entire array of available materials (e. g., siding,
brick, stucco). Sloping roof panels can be finished with shingles, tile, metal, or other materials (Figs. 15.8 and 15.9).
SIPs made by many if not all manufacturers typically are listed by independent testing agencies and are recognized by ICBO, SBC – CI, and BOCA. National building codes readily accept SIPs for their strength and energy performance properties, provided manufacturers can produce documentation to verify that panels meet structural and quality-control requirements for their intended application. Builders and designers should check with the manufacturer for specific compliance with applicable building codes.
One of the strength characteristics of SIPs is the ability to provide superior building performance, partly because of tight connections
Figure 15.8 Roof panel installation. {R-Control Building Systems)
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support of roof panel. Figure 15.9 Eave detail. (R-Control Building Systems) |
at the joints between panels. Another strength is the connection between panels and such other adjacent structural elements as beams, purlins, and columns.
Several common wall panel connection methods are used by SIP manufacturers today. A conventional approach involves fitting a 2 X 4, 2 X 6, or larger spline, having the same depth as the foam core, between panels and securing it to the facing material (Fig. 15.10). Each panel edge is prerouted to fit half the width of each spline. The 2X splines use readily available lumber and provide stability. With the double 2X connection approach, the splines themselves bear the building loads. This makes the system, with appropriate headers installed, a cohesive post-and-beam structure.
Panels are fastened together with wood or OSB splines and zinc galvanized screws or ring-shank spikes. Dimensional lumber (2X)
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is used for top and bottom plates and for headers and sills. Panels typically are rated as header material up to 4 ft. Once a foundation is completed, a panelized shell structure can be completed in a matter of days. One erection contractor quotes 3 days of erection time per 1000 ft2 building. A typical 1600-ft2 home takes 3 to 5 days to assemble, including floor, walls, and roof.
The thin-spline approach involves fitting two thin splines (approximately V2 to 3/4" thick by 3 to 4" wide) laterally into prerouted grooves in each panel edge. Each spline is usually double glued, stapled or nailed, and caulked at the seam between panels.
No single connection method has proven itself superior over others. Other approaches include
1. A premanufactured, laminated, thermally broken spline
2. A premanufactured locking arm built into each panel
3. A roll-formed steel joint
Individual panel manufacturers recommend the method that is most suitable for their system. For purposes of this discussion, 2X splines will be used.
SIPs are not damaged by rain, but long-term exposure to water could cause the panel edges to swell. After erection of the panels, the edges should be sanded down with a belt or disk sander.
Rough openings for doors and windows can be precut at the factory, easily cut on site, or accomplished by inserting a filler panel as required. Headers must be installed for window or door openings of more than 4 to 6 ft and usually can be eliminated for smaller openings. Since solid plating is installed around doors and windows, the normal technique consists of routing out approximately 1V2" in of foam around the perimeter of all rough openings for a 2X framing installation. The framing works effectively as a nailing surface. When nailed to panels above rough openings, the framing let into the panel adds to the box beam effect (Fig. 15.11).
Wiring a SIPs home is not difficult but may require some nonstandard techniques. Since interior partitions typically are stick built, it is best to make use of the interior walls whenever possible. Most SIP panels come equipped with prerouted electrical wiring chases. These chases create a network of cored-out space through which wiring can be run from the building exterior or basement up through walls and floors to the attic. Wiring chases are predrilled vertically at panel edges, or horizontally at predetermined locations above the finished floor. Some manufacturers typically core at
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12 and 44" above finished floor (aff) (Figs. 15.12 and 15.13). UL – approved romex cabling is typically used for residential and light commercial installations.
Many contractors prefer (or if recommended by a specific panel manufacturer) to take horizontal wiring runs through the basement or ceiling joist cavity when horizontal coring is not possible or provided. A raceway behind the wood baseboard, or other type of surface-mounted wire mold, is also a common design feature. This arrangement also allows for flexibility in the field as well as after construction is complete (Fig. 15.14).
Receptacle outlets and switch boxes usually are attached to panel splines or hung on brackets attached to the interior facing material. Wiring for these fixtures as well as thermostats also can be easily installed vertically in the panel edge before the rough door openings are closed in with 2 X 4s. The chases drilled though the roof panels are ideal for running sprinkler piping throughout the roof of the house. If plumbing fixtures are to be located along
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Figure 15.12 Electrical chase locations. (.R-Control Building Systems) |
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Figure 15.13 Field cut-out for electrical box. (R-Control Building Systems) |
an outside wall, a furred wall is recommended. It is necessary to predrill 2X splines to allow the horizontal chases to continue unobstructed.
Insulating Concrete Formwork
Insulating concrete formwork (ICF) is a cost-effective, flexible, modular, permanent concrete form system. The basic units of this system are EPS forms that are filled with concrete and steel reinforcing (Fig. 15.15). The departure from typical poured-in-place
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concrete construction is that the EPS formwork is left in place after the concrete cures for permanent insulating value.
There are two types of forms: planks and blocks. Planks are individual boards that are assembled onsite with the specific manufacturer’s inserts or spacers. Blocks are prefabricated ICF units that are set in place in a stacking system (Figs. 15.16 and 15.17).
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Figure 15.15 Installing ICF. (.R-Control Building Systems) |
As mentioned earlier, EPS is foamed polystyrene, a common plastic. (Close visual inspection reveals thousands of tiny white beads.) Its closed-cell, air-filled structure possesses a high resistance to heat flow as well as high mechanical strength relative to its weight. EPS gives the added advantage of being lightweight. In combination with concrete, the system has high insulation values for both thermal and acoustical applications. The flexibility as a wall system makes it unique in that almost any type of wall or foundation system can be built cost-effectively, whether or not thermal and acoustical qualities are required. The EPS is flame – retardant and is designed to withstand the rigors of wet-poured concrete. Finally, no CFCs or HCFCs are used or produced during the creation of EPS.
Although the specific cross-sectional and modular relationships may vary from product to product, the basic concept does not. The foundation or basement wall is assembled by placing interlocking EPS forms one on top of the other (as well as side by side) in a running or stack bond fashion (depending on the system). The forms are held together (or apart, actually) by integral plastic web ties, teeth, or other interlocking design mechanisms. Steel reinforcing is then placed within the forms, and the concrete is poured. It is important to note that although discussed primarily as a foundation system in this chapter, most ICF systems also can be used for full-height walls, including door and window openings. One manufacturer’s portfolio includes bridge abutments, swimming pools, and even grade beams.
The basic ICF concept of a stay-in-place, easy-to-assemble form-
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Figure 15.17 Block system. CAmerican Poly steel, Inc.)
work is the same among manufacturers; however, proprietary dimensions and physical properties vary slightly. This book does not pass judgment on the superiority of one product versus another. The contractor or homeowner can review the advantages and disadvantages of each. For example, R-Control Insulated Concrete Form by AFM Corporation, Polysteel, SmartBlock, and AAB Blue Maxx were reviewed for this book (see Appendix for manufacturer data). Polysteel has been manufacturing ICF since 1978; AFM has been making EPS products for over 30 years.
As mentioned earlier, the ICF system(s) are either assembled onsite or are prefabricated. Two examples of the site-assembled ICF systems are the R-Control Insulated Concrete Form and the
SmartBlock by ConForm. R-Control Insulated Concrete Form uses 1 X 8 ft EPS panels connected by a Diamond snap-tie every 12" horizontally and vertically. These panels are factory notched for tie placement, field assembled, and can be custom configured for the appropriate condition. The wall thickness, determined by the wall tie, is available in 4, 6, 8, and 10". R-Control Insulated Concrete Form’s EPS panel has an insect-resistant additive. ConForm’s SmartBlock is 10" wide, 10" high, and 40" long, which creates a 6V2"-thick, 87 percent solid concrete wall. Each block weighs approximately 2 lb. (The variable form is 12" high and creates nominal wall widths of 4, 6, and 8".) CFCs, HCFCs, or other toxic substances are not used in its manufacture.
In contrast to the site-assembled plank-type systems, Polysteel is a prefabricated block unit, commonly referred to as an “oversized Lego block.” The basic unit measures 48" long, and 9V4" high, or 11" wide. Each block weighs approximately 5 lb, has interlocking tongues and grooves, and has integral furring strips. AAB Blue Maxx’s standard unit measures 48" long, 11V2" wide, and 163/4" high and weighs approximately 6.2 lb.
The EPS formwork is nonstructural because the structural integrity of the assembly comes from the concrete poured within. The strength of the assembly permits it to be used in almost any civil or structural application to replace concrete block, poured-in – place, or low-rise tilt-up concrete construction. Concrete, when placed inside a formed wall, cures under almost ideal conditions. This temperature control during curing provides a 50 percent increase in compressive strength over conventional formed concrete, according to the Portland Cement Association.
Cost advantages of using ICF can be realized in a variety of ways. According to the ConForm literature, comparative costs range from 30 to 50 percent lower than conventional walls. Stay-in-place form – work eliminates the need for and cost of buying, stripping, cleaning, transporting, and storing reusable forms. The improved fire rating frequently reduces insurance costs and results in higher appraisal values than stick-built homes. Polysteel Forms reports lower life- cycle costs, such as cost savings from utility bills. For example, a home that costs $820 per year to heat and cool with stick-built construction is reduced to $240 per year when built entirely of poured – in-place concrete. Construction time and personnel are also reduced. The AAB Blue Maxx system states that a three-person team can erect the formwork, place the steel, and pour the concrete for a 2000-ft2 house in 1 day (Figs. 15.18 and 15.19).
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Figure 15.18 Residence during construction. (American Polysteel, Inc.) |
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Figure 15.19 Finished construction. (American Polysteel, Inc.) |
The moisture-resistant, closed-cell configuration of EPS gives superb insulating qualities that will not deteriorate with age. The typical R-values are as follows: R-Control Insulated Concrete Form is R-20, Polysteel is R-22, SmartBlock is R-22, and AAB Blue Maxx is R-26. The principle of permanent insulated formwork containing a high-heat-capacity material such as concrete creates the optimal thermal construction assembly because the structure (concrete) is the thermal mass and the formwork is the insulation. Thus the costly application of additional insulating material is eliminated. The result is an ideal combination of materials that significantly reduces energy consumption in moderate and extreme climates. Polysteel Forms create a superinsulated concrete wall that reduces heating and cooling costs by 50 to 80 percent.
American Polysteel, manufacturer of Polysteel forms, performed an ASHRAE computer simulation on their 6" Polysteel form R wall filled with concrete as compared with a low-mass, high-R-value wall. A Polysteel wall of R-17 was used for the test. Although the test simulation was run for all climates and regions, the illustration results were quite astounding. An exterior wood frame wall of a home in Miami, Phoenix, or Seattle would need to be insulated to more than R-50, whereas a home in New York City, St. Louis, or Washington, D. C., would have to equal R-37 in order to equal the thermal properties of the test wall.
An air barrier is not necessary because of the inherent solid mass properties value of the concrete. One common culprit is also eliminated, in that outlets do not allow air infiltration. A vapor barrier may not be needed in most climates due to the high insulation of the wall assembly. (This requirement should be verified with local building codes and applicable construction practices.) Damp-proofing and waterproofing are required in wall assemblies when used below grade. As stated earlier, verify construction assemblies with the manufacturer’s details and instructions.
Sound transmission class (STC) is a single-number rating of the sound insulating value of a material or assembly. The higher the number, the better is the insulator. The STC ratings of concrete and gypsum wallboard, along with the ideal separation that EPS creates between the two materials, provide sound insulation qualities, both airborne and impact, that meet the separation standards of the major building codes and FHA without the application of other acoustic material. For example, Polysteel walls provide an STC of 48 as compared with 32 for a 2 X 6 wood frame wall. AAB Blue Maxx provides an STC of 53, whereas ConForm (including two layers of V2-in GWB) provides an STC of 52.
Because each modular unit is so lightweight, pallets can be easily lifted manually from delivery trucks, moved around, and placed anywhere on the building site. The need for forklifts or other heavy equipment is usually eliminated, resulting in more cost savings for the contractor and the consumer. For example, one 6-lb Polysteel form creates the same amount of wall area as would 140 lb of concrete block. Similarly, a 40-lb ConForm pallet produces the equivalent of 500 lb of concrete block for the same area (Fig. 15.20).
EPS forms are designed to meet or exceed the minimum material requirements of all major building codes in the United States, Uniform Building Codes (UBCs), Southern Building Code Congress International (SBCCI), International Conference of Building Officials (ICBO), and Building Officials Code Administration (BOCA). It is important to note, however, that not all the “newer” manufacturers have been approved by the proper code authorities. Specifiers and homeowners need to verify that the product to be used has been approved.
Polysteel walls, with an insulation value of R-22 (filled with reinforced concrete), are bullet-resistant. Proper detailing, caulking, and waterproofing will minimize outside air infiltration, leaks, and drafts. Although some manufacturers claim that the formwork will not be eaten by wood-eating termites or ants, it is still prudent and recommended to sufficiently treat the soil and ICF for these vermin.
Installation standards and practices
These products are described as “builder friendly” and do not require a special skilled labor force. Most manufacturers indicate
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Figure 15.20 ICF Installation. (American Polysteel, Inc.) |
that the learning curve is minimal. Since each system reviewed in this book varies to some degree, specific installation instructions must be followed relative to the specific manufacturer. No two systems are alike, so the following are generalized application directions that were not covered elsewhere in this book.
Footings are required and should include rebar dowels for tying the walls to the footing. If stepped footings are required, it is preferred to step in vertical increments consistent with the modular form unit height.
For plank systems, a 2 X 4 should be nailed to the footing to guide placement of the first course. Corners are braced and angles cut on both sides. Vertical bracing is applied with “kickers” and ladder bracing per manufacturer’s recommendations (Figs. 15.21 and 15.22).
In the case of a prefabricated modular block, such as Polysteel, the first block is set at the corner. Each ICF block is set on another in a running bond after each course is completed. In the case of R-Control Insulated Concrete Forms, preformed corner pieces are set against the outside toe plate (used as a guide). The first pair of 8-ft planks are assembled upside down with half ties and then flipped. The remaining prebuilt sections are set continuously around the perimeter, and the second and subsequent courses are set in a stack bond (Figs. 15.23 and 15.24).
Concrete should have a slump no greater than 6" with a recommended aggregate size of 3/8M. Always check slump yourself before pouring. On hot days, or if concrete stays in the truck too long,
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Figure 15.21 Installation of corner units. (.R-Control Building Systems) |
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recheck slump. Stiff concrete is a problem. If high-strength concrete is used, or if significant rebar is placed, extra care must be taken to ensure proper filling and elimination of air pockets. Using a rebar to spread the concrete will help, and vibrating by pounding with a mallet (use a section of plywood to protect the foam) will help consolidation. Concrete admixtures can be used for special applications (Fig. 15.25).
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At the top of the wall, the concrete is screeded and troweled smooth, and anchor bolts are set. In general, hot and cold water pipes and electrical conduit and wiring can be placed in chases routed with a hot knife or cut into the wall after the concrete has cured sufficiently (Fig. 15.26).
Interior finishes of wood paneling or GWB and exterior finishes of board and batten siding, wood, vinyl or aluminum siding, brick, stone, or even stucco can be applied to any of the products. The method of attachment varies with each product. For example, screws are set only at each tie with the R-Control Insulated Concrete Form system, whereas Polysteel has integral furring strips, and GWB is typically adhered to ConForm’s SmartBlock.
Straw Bale
Straw is the dried dead stems of cereal grains after the seed heads have been harvested. These grains include wheat, oats, barley, rye,
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flax, and rice. Straw is different from hay, which is grown for livestock feed and is baled green with the leaves and seedheads included. As the grains are harvested, the straw is tightly packed into bales that are tied with wire, plastic, or sisal string. Unlike hay grasses that are harvested green as livestock feed, straw has a high silica content that reduces its flammability, is nonnutritious, less attractive to pests, and is naturally resistant to rotting. There are no reported or known cases of termites damaging straw bale walls,
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Figure 15.26 Electrical installa-
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tion. (R-Control Building
j although in one case they traveled through the bales to get to wood window frames.7
The first stationary, horse-powered baler was built in 1872, followed by steam-powered balers in 1884. These two inventions, especially the horse-powered baler, contributed to the growth of straw bale construction. In the late 1800s, the northwestern Nebraska sandhills were a vast grassland area with limited trees. A shortage of lumber, and little or no access to rail transportation, meant that settlers had to turn to indigenous materials for protection from the elements. The Kincaid Act of 1904 provided new homesteading rules that further helped populate this semiarid region of grass-stabilized sand dunes.
Although claims have been made for the construction of a hay bale home near Lincoln, Nebraska, in 1889, the oldest structure for
which there is satisfactory documentation is a one-room school – house built near Minitare (then Tabor), Nebraska, in 1896 or 1897.8
Plastered straw bale houses, farm buildings, churches, schools, offices, and grocery stores were developed throughout the region. The straw bales, about 3 to 4 ft long and 1V2 to 2 ft square, were stacked like bricks, one bale deep, with the joints staggered. Some houses used mortar between the bales, whereas others simply rested one bale directly on the other. Four to five wooden or iron rods were driven down through the bales to hold the wall firmly together. The roof plate, typically supporting a simple hipped roof, was fastened to the top bales of the wall with rods or stakes. Window and door frames were set as the walls rose around them. Numerous examples of these historic structures still exist, many over 100 years old. These artifacts serve as excellent examples of the durability, simplicity of construction, and environmental sensibility that have contributed to the growing popularity of straw bale construction in the twenty-first century (Figs. 15.27 through 15.29).
Bales are available with two or three wires holding them together. Two-wire bales weigh about 50 lb and are usually 14" high, 18"
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Figure 15.28 Two-story Escalon house under construction. (Daniel Smith & Associates Architects) |
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wide, and 32 to 40" long. Three-wire bales weigh 75 to 100 lb and measure are 16 to 17" high, 23 to 24" wide, and 42 to 47" long. The length of bales can be easily changed, but because of the shoot of the baler, the height and width are fixed.
Good building bales should be dry and well compacted with no discoloration from rot or mold. The weight of dry bales (moisture content below 20 percent) is 7 to 9 lb/ft3. A building-quality bale should be dense enough that it will not deform when two people stand on it. The strings should be tight enough so that when the bale is lifted by the strings, you can fit no more than one finger under the string. Half bales and whole bales are needed so that the bales can be staggered when stacked.
Climatically, the range of building sites includes semiarid locations such as southern Sonora, Mexico, rainy and humid sites in Alabama, and wintry regions such as northern Alberta, Canada, or the coast of Maine. Straw bale buildings also have been built in other parts of the world such as Australia, Canada, Chile, England, Finland, France, Ireland, Mongolia, New Zealand, Norway, Russia, Scotland, and Wales. The building sizes and types are quite varied. Examples include a 10′ X 12′ storage shed (built by a fifth grade class with rice straw bales), an art gallery, a 40′ X 80′ grocery store, elegant homes, and a 26,000-ft2 hog barn with a straw-insulated roof.9
Straw bale construction guidelines have been created for use as a prescriptive code for load-bearing straw bale structures, but adoption has been limited. The international building codes currently being adopted as this book goes to print do not include specific regulations for straw bale construction. The reference to alternative materials and methods in Chap. 1 requires local building officials to provide approval and permitting for this type of construction. Straw bale codes have already been adopted in parts of Arizona, California, New Mexico, and Oregon, as well as in Austin, Texas, and Boulder, Colorado.
As mentioned earlier, there are few termites that like straw. The only reported cases of termite damage occurred when the termites traveled through the straw to the wood window and door frames. The straw was left untouched. Termite prevention measures, such as termite shields, borate, or other barrier methods, should still be implemented as in conventional housing.10
Long-term or repeated exposure to moisture is perhaps the greatest danger that straw bale walls face. Given enough liquid moisture and 2 to 3 weeks, the fungi that are always present in bales produce enzymes that break down straw cellulose. Fortunately, straw moisture content must be above 20 percent (by weight) to support fungal growth. Some codes require a maximum moisture content of 14 percent. Moisture testing in plastered straw bale walls suggests that maintaining the breathability of straw bale walls may be the best insurance against rot. Historical data for unwrapped bale walls demonstrate the importance of maximum breathability; a mansion in Huntsville, Alabama, has successfully endured southern humidity since 1938; a 1978 building near Rockport, Washington, receives up to 75 in of rain a year; and an unplastered building near Tonasket, Washington, with no foundation and unplastered walls shows no apparent deterioration of the bales since 1984. Straw bale wall moisture monitoring is underway in climates as diverse as Portland, Oregon, Alberta, Canada, and Nova Scotia, Canada. Tests to date show rot problems only in areas with leaks or direct bale-concrete foundation or bale-soil contact.
Much of the published information on the energy performance of straw bale buildings is based on measurements done in 1993 by Joseph McCabe at the University of Arizona as part of his master’s thesis. McCabe’s findings show that straw bale construction assemblies have an insulating value of R-54.8 for a 23.5M-wide, three-string bale laid flat. The same bale laid on edge has an R – value of R-49.5. For two-string bales laid flat, the R-value is R – 42.8. When laid on edge, the R-value is R-32.1.10 McCabe concluded that the insulating value is 2.68 per inch (0.054 W/m*°C) when heat flow is perpendicular to the orientation of the straw (bales stacked on edge) and 2.38 per inch (0.061 W/m*°C) when the heat flow is parallel to the straw orientation (with the grain). Subsequent studies have been performed with varying results depending on the testing method. In the most recent test, on May 15, 1998, researchers at ORNL completed a second test in their guarded-hot-box chamber. Bales were 19" (480 mm) wide and stacked flat. After being plastered on both sides, the wall was allowed to dry for almost 2 months (to 13 percent moisture content). The test chamber was operated with one side at 70°F (21°C) and the other at 0°F ( —18°C), and 2 weeks were provided for the wall to reach steady-state heat flow conditions. Measurements then showed the wall to insulate to R-27.5 (RSI-4.8). On a per – thickness basis, this is 1.45 per inch (0.099 W/m*°C), just over half the value most commonly reported.11
In a paper presented in 1998, researchers Tav Commins and Nehemiah Stone suggest that this is the most accurate measure of the R-value of straw bale walls to date. Achieving a wall R-value of R-28 (RSI-4.9) for a straw bale building is significant, but is drastically lower than the R-50 to R-60 (RSI-8.8 to RSI-10.6) figures that have been suggested in the past. The wide variation in tested R-values that may result from gaps or moisture intrusion also indicates how important proper installation is with straw bale construction.11 It is anticipated that additional testing will continue to ascertain a consistent R-value per inch quantity.
The success of a straw bale construction project may start with the quality of the basic unit of material to be used. Judy Knox, of Out on Bale, (un)Ltd., provides the following guidelines for selecting bales:
1. Purchase bales following the harvest when they are usually inexpensive and abundant. Make sure the bales are stored high and dry.
2. Obtain the bales from feed stores and other retail outlets, wholesale brokers, or directly from the farmer. Retail outlets are the easiest and most expensive sources. Wholesale brokers offer direct access to the bale supplier and often offer commercial transportation. Dealing directly with farmers may give you more say about bale quality and consistency, but you will likely have to address bale transportation.
3. Do not rely on hearsay concerning the size and condition of any bales you may buy. Check out the bales yourself.
4. Bales must be tightly tied with durable material, preferably polypropylene string or baling wire. Avoid bales tied with traditional natural fiber baling twine. When you lift the bale, it should not twist or sag.
5. Make sure the bales are uniformly well compacted.
6. Look for thick, long-stemmed straw that is mostly free of seed heads. Wheat, oats, rye, barley, rice, and flax are all good.
7. Test most bales to make sure that they have always been dry. Bale moisture content should be 14 percent or less.
8. An ideal bale size proportion is twice as long as it is wide. This simplifies maintaining a running bond in courses.
9. Try to get bales of equal size and length. If they do vary in length (as many will), lay 10 bales end-to-end. Measure this entire length. Then divide by 10. This is the average bale length to use for planning.12
The three basic ways to build walls with straw bales are known as Nebraska style, in-fill, and mortar bale. (A fourth style, known as straw-clay building, has been used historically in Europe.) Straw bales can be laid flat or laid on edge. Laid flat refers to stacking bales so that the sides with the largest cross-sectional area are horizontal and the longest dimension of this area is parallel with the wall plane. This would be analogous to a typical brick stretcher course laid in a running bond. Laid on edge refers to stacking bales so that the sides with the largest cross-sectional area are vertical and the longest dimension of this area is horizontal and parallel with the wall plane. This method is similar to a brick shiner course laid in a running bond.
Generally speaking, bale walls are commonly wrapped with stucco netting and plastered with mud, lime-sand, or cement plaster. In many cases the netting has been found to be unnecessary, and plaster is applied directly to the bales.
State building codes or construction guidelines, if applicable, should be consulted. The following text is to be used as a general guide to installation only.
Nebraska style. The oldest method of straw bale construction, Nebraska style, is also referred to as structural bale or load-bearing construction. The reference to Nebraska is an homage to straw bale’s historic ancestry in buildings that originated on the Great Plains. Before 1936, all straw bale structures were built in this style.10
In Nebraska style construction, automatic straw balers create tight building blocks that are stacked up to one and one-half stories. The bales are typically stuccoed on the exterior and plastered on the interior to provide protection from the elements and an attractive finish. The stucco and plaster also add to the structural integrity of the wall system. This method is gaining in popularity because of its simplicity and economy of material use12 (Fig. 15.30).
The simplest of load-bearing straw bale structures are square or rectangular buildings with hip roofs to distribute the roof load as equally as possible on all the walls. Buildings are usually limited to one story, and a relatively small number of windows and doors
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Figure 15.30 Stucco application. {Harvest Built Homes) |
are distributed fairly evenly around the building to prevent differential settling of walls.
In a typical load-bearing design, bales are stacked on a poured concrete stem wall that extends about 6" above the floor slab. A moisture barrier or capillary break (such as gravel) should be placed between the foundation and the first course of straw bales. The barrier should run vertically between the perimeter insulation and the foundation wall and should run horizontally under the straw bale and then double back to the outside edge of the foundation (Fig. 15.31).
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Many builders prefer three-wire bales because they are wider than two-wire bales, thereby making the walls more stable. Bales are usually stacked in a running bond fashion and fastened to each other by driving pins, usually of wood, metal, or bamboo, down through multiple courses of bales as the walls are built. Stacking using a running bond produces a wall that is stronger and more stable. Wooden frames are installed for windows and doors as the layers of bales are installed. Lintels also can be used to transfer the loads to the bale walls on either side of an opening (Fig. 15.32).
Roof construction for bale buildings is virtually the same as for conventional construction. Bale walls usually are capped with a wooden, plywood, or concrete roof-bearing top plate. Also called a roof plate, this assembly serves as a structural element at the top of the wall to bear and distribute the weight of the roof, to give the top of the wall additional lateral strength, and to provide a way to securely attach the roof structure to the walls (Fig. 15.33).
Roof plates typically consist of a horizontal material that is as wide, or nearly as wide, as the bale width of the wall below. Attached to this is a vertical piece or pieces that provide strength against bowing down in the middle. One common method for 23м – wide, three-string bales uses a 24M-wide plywood sheet as the hori-
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Figure 15.33 Conventional roof. (Harvest Built Homes) |
zontal piece and two 2 X 6s or 2 X 8s stood on edge and nailed along the long edges of the plywood sheet. Another method, termed a ladder-type roof plate, uses lengths of 2 X 6 or 2 X 8 lumber connected by short cross-pieces of the same lumber.
The hip roof is probably most suitable for larger load-bearing bale buildings because it offers the advantages of allowing all the exterior walls to be built to the same height and the roof load to be distributed to all four walls. To protect the bales from moisture, substantial overhangs are preferred in high-rainfall climates.
Continuous structural connections between the foundation and roof structure are necessary to resist the uplift and lateral forces caused by high winds and (in some regions) seismic activity. Various systems have been developed, including anchor bolts and threaded rods, cables, heavy wires, and straps (Fig. 15.34).
Full-height threaded rods every 6 ft is a simple but laborious method. Sections of threaded rod usually extend from the concrete stem wall to the top of the wall, and bales are installed over them. These threaded rods are bolted through the roof plate and tightened down after the roof is installed.
The traditional approach to wall compression is to put the roof on and wait at least 6 weeks for the weight of the roof to compress the
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Figure 15.34 Roof detail. (.Daniel Smith & Associates, Architects) |
bales prior to plastering. Posttensioning, also referred to as precompressing, can compress the walls for increased structural stability, reduced long-term settling, and faster construction (Fig. 15.35).
In an effort to avoid the traditional method of “impaling” the bales over the full-height threaded rods, other systems have been devised. For example, а 2" X 2" steel mesh is nailed at the bottom of the wall to a wooden wall plate that is bolted to the concrete foundation. The mesh is also nailed to the roof plate at the top of the wall. A backhoe can be used to apply a force to the roof plate to compress the wall before the mesh is nailed in place.
Another method of posttensioning embeds eyebolts in the foundation on either side of the wall. A V2" flat poly strap is threaded through the eyebolts, over the top of the roof plate, and back down to the eyebolt on the other side of the wall. The poly strap method uses small metal buckles, which allows tension to be placed on the strapping, with the overall advantages of minimal tool needs and maximum speed and ease.
In-fill. The in-fill or nonstructural bale system can be used for the construction of large structures, taller-wall heights, or where extensive diagonal bracing may be required. A vertical load-bearing
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Figure 15.35 Straw-bale roof. (.Daniel Smith & Associates, Architects) |
structural frame is employed with the straw bale wall. Also called the post and beam style, this approach can accommodate structural systems such as concrete block, concrete, short 2 X 4 fin walls, or wood I-beams. The roof plate is actually a concrete tie beam, an engineered wood beam, or a box beam. The straw bale walls have only their own weight to support. The bales are attached to each other by piercing the bales with rebar, stakes of wood, or bamboo and attaching the bales to the pole or column.
Using straw bales as in-fill walls in post-and-beam offers several advantages. Less reinforcement of the bale walls is needed because the structural system carries the roof load. In the event the straw bales help support the posts, smaller framing members can be used than is common with timber frame construction. The roof also can be finished before erecting bale walls, keeping rain off the straw bales prior to stucco application. In-fill straw bale designs also permit greater design flexibility. Irregular roof designs, multiple-story building heights, complex floor plans, and different amounts of glazing on different orientations are possible with this system. The disadvantages include the need for more framing material, the lack of continuity in the bale fabric, and typically a diminished “bale character” in the wall edges and alignment12 (Figs. 15.36 and 15.37).
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Figure 15.36 Berkeley cottage under construction. (.Daniel Smith & Associates, Architects) |
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Figure 15.37 Berkeley cottage after stucco. (.Daniel Smith & Associates, Architects) |
As summarized by Daniel Smith & Associates, Architects, there are several other systems approaches to the post and beam style. These include
1. Post and beam with continuous bale wall alongside. An exposed heavy timber frame with the bale wall running alongside.
2. Bale wall with light notched-in posts. A light post and beam frame notched into a continuous bale wall, so that the frame is not exposed. As straw bales are stacked, they are notched around the wooden frame, where they provide lateral bracing— corner bracing may not be required. (Steel frames and masonry – block or poured-concrete columns also can be used.)
3. Bale wall wrapped around an existing shell. The bales are typically wrapped outside the existing skin of the building and then tied to it. This is a common approach to insulating an existing house, barn, or steel industrial building.
Mortar bale. The mortar bale system uses structural mortar, made of portland cement and sand, that is applied between the straw bales. Bales are stuccoed on the exterior and plastered on the interior to protect them and provide an attractive finish. The mortared joints, stucco, and plaster also add to the structural integrity of the wall system. This system’s thermal performance is not as efficient because of conductivity through the mortar joints. This method was developed in Canada in the 1980s and is compliant with Canadian building codes.12
Structural considerations and guidelines
Although code requirements will vary, the following is a draft prescriptive standard for load-bearing and non-load-bearing straw bale construction that has been developed by David Eisenberg of the Development Center for Appropriate Technology with input from Matts Myhrman:
■ Minimum wall thickness: 13" (330 mm).
■ Minimum density of straw bales: 7.5 lb/ft3 (120 kg/m3).
■ Maximum wall height: One story with unloaded bale portion of wall not to exceed 5.6 times the wall thickness.
■ Maximum unsupported wall length: 15.7 times the wall thickness.
■ Allowable load on bale walls: 550 lb/ft2 (2684 kg/m2).
■ Minimum height of foundation (stem) wall: 6" (150 mm) above grade.
■ Structural anchoring to foundation: Minimum V2" (13-mm) diameter steel anchor bolts at intervals of 6 ft (1.8 m) minimum connected to threaded rod to tie down top plate.
■ Moisture barrier: One of several barrier materials between top of foundation and bottom of bale wall to block capillary moisture migration.
■ For load-bearing walls, bales must be stacked flat with bales overlapping in successive courses; various options for pinning bales are acceptable. For nonstructural walls, bales may be stacked on edge.
■ Roof plate: Two double 2 X 6 (or larger) horizontal top plates located at inner and outer bale edges with cross-bracing.
■ Wall openings for windows and doors: Minimum of one full bale from an outside corner and framed to carry roof load (several options possible).
■ Plaster/stucco: Cement stucco reinforced with woven wire stucco netting or equivalent, secured through the wall.13
Moisture is probably the greatest threat to the success of any straw bale construction project. Straw is inherently resistant to rot and is resistant to but a very few organisms that are actually able to decompose straw. High moisture levels in straw bales can provide a habitat for fungi and lead to decomposition. In fact, fungus can occur in straw at humidity levels of above 20 percent (percentage of dry weight). The New Mexico standards list 20 percent as the maximum allowable moisture content, but some researchers believe that 14 percent is a more appropriate quantity.10 Bulk moisture must be kept away from walls by using wide overhangs, sloping the ground away from the building, and installing a good capillary break between the foundation and the bale walls.13 For obvious reasons, straw bales should not be used below grade. The foundation should be constructed so that the bottom of the lowest course of straw bales is at least 6" above final exterior grade.
There are no historical precedents for bales being used with moisture barriers, and consequently, there are no data on how the two perform together. Most historical data for unwrapped bale walls demonstrate the importance of maximum breathability of bale walls. The almost universal practice among straw bale builders, whether in California, Arizona, Washington, or Nova Scotia, is to avoid the use of sheet moisture barriers or impermeable stuccoes over the bales. Experience with straw bale structures in a variety of climates indicates that these barriers are not necessary and may even be detrimental.14
A mansion in Huntsville, Alabama, has successfully endured southern humidity since 1938; a 1978 building near Rockport, Washington, receives up to 75 in of rain a year; and an unplastered building near Tonasket, Washington, with no foundation and unplastered walls has shown no apparent deterioration of the bales since 1984. Of the hundreds of bale buildings standing in the Southwest, none has used a paper moisture barrier. Recent bale structures in northern New York (humid winters) and Nova Scotia (cold humid winters) have been monitored and demonstrate good performance in these difficult climates.14
The introduction of a sheet moisture barrier, even a breathable product, inhibits the natural transpiration of the bales and may even create a surface that would concentrate moisture within the wall. Although air retarder products transmit vapor, they block liquid moisture. Consequently, vapor traveling from the building interior condensed inside the bale wall would be unable to leave the wall except as vapor and could collect at the membrane and cause rot. The straw/stucco membrane, which allows both vapor migration and transpiration of liquid, can allow such moisture to wick out to the exterior more readily.14
Canadian studies suggest that alkaline stuccoes, whether lime-rich or cement-rich, do not attack the straw at the interface and indeed appear to preserve it. One drawback is that the cement-rich stuccoes may be too impermeable to water vapor. This lack of breathability may not be conducive for use as exterior skins in cold areas. In contrast, the study continues, the lime-rich stuccoes may be too permeable to liquid water for the driving rain in other regions.15
Straw is an annually renewable crop, available wherever grain crops are grown. It is indeed a waste product, much of which is currently burned in the field. The slow rate at which straw deteriorates creates disposal problems for farmers. Unlike nitrogen-rich hay, straw cannot be used for livestock feed.10
Although loose straw is easy to burn, baled straw chars and smolders and does not easily support a flame. Unlike stud construction, in which a series of “chimneys” (stud cavities) form the wall, bales are difficult to burn. The straw in bales is densely packed, which inhibits the oxygen flow necessary to fuel combustion. Straw bales, like heavy timbers, will char on the outside, thereby creating an insulating layer that further inhibits combustion. There have been some examples where the walls have been difficult to extinguish, since embers tend to slowly tunnel through the bales. The American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM) Standard E119, “Small Scale Fire Tests,” has even given straw bale construction a 2-hour fire rating.7
The tests administered by the National Research Council of Canada indicate that when jacketed by stucco and plaster, bales are even more resistant to fire. The plaster surface of the test sample withstood temperatures of up to 1850° F before a small crack developed.10 The plastered bales hold enough air to provide good insulation but are firmly compacted and do not hold enough air to allow combustion.
Bales laid on edge leave the strings exposed unless covered with plaster or stucco. If the strings are burned, the bale will fall apart and subsequently combust. When the bales are also wrapped with wire lath, the potential danger of burned and busted baling twine is, of course, greatly reduced. Bales that potentially could be exposed to extreme heat or flame, whether in walls or roofs, must be encased in plaster or gypsum board.
Whether a straw bale building system can achieve the popularity necessary to be considered a conventional building system is not known at this time. The Straw Bale Construction Association is a fledgling trade association of straw bale builders and architects that has members in 22 states, indicating some level of interest among professionals. Availability and shipping costs may be the biggest deterrent to competitive use of straw bale construction. At present, straw bales range in price from $1.70 (material and delivery) in Alberta, Canada, up to $3.50 in parts of Arizona and British Columbia. Research indicates that straw bale residences can range in cost from $10 to $100 per square foot depending on level of finishes, complexity of plan, and amount of owner-provided labor.
Appendix
AFM Corporation P. O. Box 246 24000 W. Highway 7 Excelsior, MN 55331 800-255-0176
R-Control Insulated Concrete Form and R-Control Building Systems
952-474-0809
Fax: 952-474-2074
American Polysteel Forms 5150-F Edith NE Albuquerque, NM 87101 800-9PS-FORM Fax: 505-345-8154
FischerSIPS Incorporated 1843 Northwestern Parkway Louisville, KY 40203 502-778-5577 800-792-7477
Structural Insulated Panel Association 3413 A 56th Street NW Gig Harbor, WA 98335 253-858-SIPA (7472)
Fax: 253-858-0272 Email: staff@sips. org http:/ /www. sips. org/
Tav Commins
California Energy Commission 1516 9th Street Sacramento, CA 95814-5504 916-654-4989 Fax: 916-654-4420 http:/ /www. energy. ca. gov
Harvest Built Homes
Nancy Richardson, Executive Director
93 California Street
Ashland OR 97520
541-482-8733
A 501(c)(3) nonprofit corporation promoting affordable straw bale home ownership for low-income families
Jeff Christian
Oak Ridge National Laboratory
Bldg. 3147
PO. Box 2008
Oak Ridge, TN 37831-6070
423-574-5207
Fax: 423-574-9338
Daniel Smith & Associates, Architects
1107 Virginia Street
Berkeley, CA 94702
510-526-1935
Fax: 510-526-1961
E-mail: info@dsaarch. com
http:/ /www. dsaarch. com/
David Eisenberg
Director, Development Center for Appropriate Technology (DCAT)
PO. Box 41144 Tucson, Arizona 85717 520-624-6628 Fax: 520-798-3701 str awnet@aol. com
The Last Straw HC 66, Box 119 Hillsboro, NM 88042 505-895-5400
Center for Renewable Energy and Sustainable Technology (CREST)
777 N. Capitol St. NW
Ste. 805, Washington, DC 20002
202-289-5365
E-mail: info@crest. org
http: / / solstice, crest, org /
References
1. Structural Insulated Panel Association Web site: http: 11www. sips. org/html /frame_news. html.
2. “Agriboard Insulated Straw Panels,” Energy Source Builder No. 49, February 1997.
3. “Foam Core Panels,” Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy, U. S. Department of Energy. Available at http://www. eren. doe. gov/consumer info / refbriefs / bdl. html.
4. “How Do SIPs Really React in a Fire?” Available at http://sips. org/html/ techops. html.
5. “SIPs Outperform Stick and Batt.” Available at http: //sips. org/html / oakridge. html.
6. “Do SIPs Contain Formaldehyde?” Available at http: //sips. org/html / techops. html.
7. David Eisenberg, “Straw Bale Construction,” Engineering Australia Magazine, 1997. Available at http:/ / www. azstarnet. com/ ~dcat/Aust. htm.
8. Matts Myhrman and Judy Knox, “A Brief History of Hay and Straw as Building Materials,” The Last Straw 1(4), 1993.
9. Joseph C. McCabe, “The Thermal Resistivity of Straw Bales for Construction.” Available at http:/ /solstice. crest. org/efficiency/straw_insulation/straw_insul. html.
10. Athena Swentzell Steen, Bill Steen, and David Bainbridge, The Straw Bale House (White River Junction, VT: Chelsea Green Publishing Company, 1994).
11. “R-Value of Straw Bales Lower than Previously Reported,” EBN 7(9), 1998. Available at http://www. ebuild. com/Archives/Other_Copy /r-value. html.
12. “Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy,” U. S. Department of Energy, April 1995. Available at http://www. eren. doe. gov/EE/strawhouse/.
13. Alex Wilson, “Straw: The Next Great Building Material?” EBN 4(3), 1995. Available at http:/ /www. greenbuildings. com/Archives/Features/Straw/ Straw. html.
14. John Swearingen. Available at http:/ /www. snowcrest. net/smb/moisture. htm.
15. Bob Platts, “Pilot Study of Moisture Control in Stuccoed Straw Bale Walls,” Canada Mortgage and Housing Corporation Report, Ottawa, May 31, 1997.
Chapter
Historical Insulation Products
Asbestos
Asbestos is a fibrous mineral found in rocks and soil throughout the world that has been used in more than 3000 different construction materials and manufactured products. Asbestos has been used in architectural and construction applications because it is strong, durable, fire retardant, and an efficient insulator. Alone or in combination with other materials, asbestos can be fashioned into a variety of products that have numerous applications within the building industry, such as flooring, walls, ceiling tiles, decorative spray-on ceiling treatments, exterior housing shingles, insulation or fire retardant for heating and electrical systems, etc.
Chrysotile, or white asbestos, is the most widely used mineral in the asbestos family and makes up approximately 95 percent of the world’s asbestos supply, three-quarters of which is mined in Quebec, Canada. Prices can range from $200 to $1300 a metric ton, depending on the quality. (The longer the fiber, the more valuable it is.1) Amosite, known as brown asbestos, and crocidolite, known as blue asbestos, each account for less than 5 percent of all asbestos in buildings. The remaining three kinds of asbestos, anthophyllite, tremolite, and actinolite, are rare. In addition to the strip mines in Canada, mining operations continue in Russia, China, Zimbabwe, Brazil, and King City, California.
All types of asbestos are chemically inert, noncombustible, and tend to break into very tiny fibers. These individual fibers are so
small that many must be identified using a microscope. In fact, some individual fibers may be up to 700 times smaller than a human hair. Because asbestos fibers are so small, once released into the air, they may stay suspended there for hours or even days.
The first recorded use of asbestos was in Finland about 2500 B. c., where the material was used in the mud wattle for the wooden huts the people lived in as well as strengthening for pottery. Adverse health aspects of the mineral were noted nearly 2000 years ago when Pliny the Younger wrote about the poor health of slaves in the asbestos mines. Benjamin Franklin even carried a fireproof purse made from asbestos.1 Although known to be injurious for centuries, the first modern references to its toxicity were by the British Labor Inspectorate when it banned asbestos dust from the workplace in 1898. Asbestosis cases were described in the literature after the turn of the century. Cancer was first suspected in the mid-1980s, and a causal link to mesothelioma was made in 1965. Because of the public concern for worker and public safety with the use of this material, several different types of analyses were applied to the determination of asbestos content.2
The first commercial asbestos mine, a chrysotile mine, was opened in Quebec, Canada, in the 1870s. Amosite asbestos and crocidolite asbestos were mined from Africa beginning in 1916 and 1980, respectively. Asbestos was first used in the United States in the early 1900s to insulate steam engines. While its fire-retardent and durability properties soon prompted this material’s inclusion into a variety of household and construction products, the manufacturers of asbestos products were aware of the deadly dangers and health hazards by the 1930s. Workers in asbestos factories, including men, women, and children, were developing asbestos lung disease as soon as 5 or 6 years after first exposure to asbestos. By the early 1940s, medical and scientific articles were being published showing the connection between asbestos and the development of lung cancer. By the 1950s, the connection between asbestos and mesothelioma had been made, and by 1960, it was established that persons exposed to asbestos were developing mesothelioma at an alarming rate. Secret internal company documents reveal that the asbestos companies intentionally hid what they knew about the dangers and health hazards of asbestos so that workers and customers would not object to using asbestos products. In 1973, the United States used 795,000 metric tons of asbestos in consumer products. Although some asbestos-containing materials were still being installed in buildings into the late 1980s, this number had dropped to 21,700 metric tons by 1996, with predominant uses in water pipes, brake linings, and roof coatings.3
Asbestos is found in thousands of products, including many building materials. Asbestos is most commonly found in commercial applications as sprayed-on insulation, pipe and boiler insulation, and duct insulation. In residential dwellings, it can be found in roofing and siding shingles made with asbestos cement, vinyl floor tiles and adhesives, wall and ceiling acoustical tiles, sprayed “popcorn” coatings on ceilings and walls, insulation in attics and walls, and insulation blankets on furnace ducts and hot water and steam pipes, as well as boiler door gaskets on furnaces and wood stoves.
Products containing asbestos can be very difficult, if not impossible, to visually identify unassisted. There are some general descriptions one can go by. For example, sprayed-on asbestos insulation is usually a fluffy material sprayed onto ceilings or beams and sometimes covered by ceiling tiles. Asbestos pipe and boiler insulation may be covered with paper, cloth, or metal. The actual insulation can be a cardboard-like pipe wrap or cement on pipe elbows. Asbestos duct insulation is usually a thin layer of insulation that may be painted or covered with paper, cloth, or metal. Asbestos ceiling tiles, used for sound insulation or dropped ceilings, are very similar to nonasbestos tiles.
There is not a standardized assessment of asbestos use based on chronology either. For example, cement-asbestos board siding, a very dense, brittle product, was used primarily in the 1940s, 1950s, and into the 1960s. From the mid-1960s through the early 1980s, some spray-on “popcorn” ceiling treatments contained asbestos (asbestos used in this product was banned in 1977). The product most appropriate to the scope of this book, thermal insulation in attics and walls, was used primarily in homes built between 1930 and 1950. The amount of asbestos used in construction products varied as well. Asbestos insulation used between 1910 and the early 1970s may contain up to 74 percent or more asbestos by weight.
Although not as common as many other asbestos-containing materials (ACMs), loose blown-in and batt insulations infrequently have been known to contain asbestos. These were used primarily as thermal insulation in homes built or remodeled between 1930 and 1950. Although the U. S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) has stated that many homes constructed in the United States during the past 20 years probably do not contain asbestos products, new discoveries have demonstrated that this may be inaccurate. As recently as February 2000, new disclosures revealed that there may be other thermal insulation products that were on the market as recently as the early 1980s that contained asbestos.
For example, W. R. Grace Company was hit with three class – action lawsuits, one filed in Boston on behalf of homeowners nationwide who have asbestos-tainted Zonolite attic insulation in their homes and the other two in Montana, where the company operated a mine and mill. The lawsuit, filed in U. S. District Court in Boston by Edward M. Lindholm, accuses W. R. Grace Company of fraud, deception, and enriching itself at the expense of home – owners by failing to warn the public that the Zonolite insulation it sold from 1963 through 1984 contained tremolite asbestos. Grace’s Cambridge-based Construction Products Division oversaw its attic insulation line.4 In 1984, the EPA estimated that this attic insulation had been installed in 940,000 homes.5 Grace, which discontinued its attic insulation in 1984, knew as far back as 1963 about the asbestos but feared that disclosure would hurt sales, according to memos from high-ranking Grace officials.4
This asbestos presents a hazard only if renovation and repair work disturbs it. If asbestos-containing materials are discovered, be sure certified and/or qualified contractors/workers are consulted and hired so that asbestos fibers are not spread further throughout the home.
As mentioned earlier, asbestos fibers were added to a variety of products to increase durability, insulation properties, and fire resistance. There are several types of asbestos fibers that may be found in a home, and typically an ACM cannot be recognized simply by looking at it, unless it is labeled. Until a product is tested it is best to assume that the product contains asbestos, unless the label or the manufacturer verifies that it does not. If there is a possibility that the house contains asbestos, the only sure way to tell is to take a sample from the specific area in question and have it tested by an EPA-approved laboratory.
Unlike thermal insulation, pipe insulation typically is easier to identify. Asbestos pipe insulation looks white and chalky and is wrapped in a thin canvas. Another type looks like corrugated paper wrapped with tape or paper that has been cut to fit around the pipes or furnace ducts.
Asbestos removal has been called the biggest environmental cleanup project in the United States. It has cost over $50 billion over the past 20 years.3 If the asbestos is in good condition, it is best not to remove it. If the material is friable, it could be a health hazard, and other steps needs to be taken. (The means test for friability suggests that when the material is dry, it may be crumbled, pulverized, or reduced to powder by hand pressure, flakes off, or is deteriorating.) Similarly, if the material has been sanded, cut, or sawed, it is also a hazard and needs to be removed or immobilized.
Although the reaction to the health hazards of asbestos workers initially accelerated public concerns, the EPA also has slowly changed its position. For example, in 1979 the EPA stated that the only permanent solution to asbestos in buildings was to take it out. In 1983, the EPA said “removal was always appropriate, never inappropriate.” In 1985, the EPA issued an updated statement in the “Purple Book” that emphasized managing asbestos rather than removing it. The issue of asbestos removal was further downplayed in 1990. The EPAs “Green Book” noted that improper asbestos removal could increase exposure by stirring up dust unnecessarily.3
The EPA currently requires asbestos removal only to prevent significant public exposure to asbestos, such as during building renovation or demolition. In fact, an improper removal can create a dangerous situation where none existed previously. EPA does recommend in-place management whenever asbestos is discovered. Instead of removal, a conscientious in-place management program usually will control fiber releases, particularly when the materials are not significantly damaged and are not likely to be disturbed.
The EPA has produced many guidance documents on asbestos in buildings. Some of the most pertinent are
1. “Guidance for Controlling Asbestos-Containing Materials in Buildings (Purple Book),” EPA 560/5-85-024.
2. “A Guide to Respiratory Protection for the Asbestos Abatement Industry (White Book),” EPA-560-OPTS-86-001.
3. “Managing Asbestos in Place: A Building Owner’s Guide to Operations and Maintenance Programs for Asbestos-Containing Materials (Green Book),” ЕРА 20T-2003.
4. Asbestos Abatement and Management in Buildings: Model Guide Specifications, 2d ed., August 1988. New sections on asbestos-containing resilient flooring and a new introduction and instructions-for-use section were published in early 1992.6
EPA also maintains an asbestos information “hot line” and publications ordering number: 202-554-1404. For school-related asbestos information, call 800-835-6700. Information is also available from the National Institute of Building Sciences (NIBS), Washington, D. C.: 202-289-7800.
Home inspection. If immediate identification of the material is not possible, one alternative is to hire a house inspector specifically trained in handling asbestos material. The house inspector should have an identification card that has been dated within the last year. The cost is typically $100 plus the laboratory fee.
A professional asbestos inspector also may be available depending on the locale. The homeowner should review several items prior to the hire. First of all, make sure that the inspection will include a complete visual examination and careful collection and laboratory analysis of samples. If asbestos is present, the inspector should provide a written evaluation describing its location and extent of damage and give recommendations for correction or prevention. The homeowner also should verify that the inspecting firm makes frequent site visits if it is hired to ensure that a contractor follows proper procedures and requirements. The inspector may recommend and perform checks after the correction to ensure that the area has been cleaned properly.
Asbestos contractor. If the asbestos product is in poor condition, it is highly recommended that the homeowner hire a state-certified asbestos contractor to minimize all health risks in removing or immobilizing it properly. Asbestos professionals can conduct an inspection, take samples of suspected material, assess their condition, and advise about what corrections, if any, are needed and who is qualified to make these corrections. Asbestos abatement contractors can be found in the Yellow Pages or at Web sites. The home – owner also should check with the local air pollution control board, the local agency responsible for worker safety, and the Better
Business Bureau. Ask if the firm has had any safety violations, and find out if there are legal actions filed against it. Each person performing such work should provide proof of training and licensing in asbestos work, such as completion of EPA-approved training. State and local health departments or EPA regional offices may have listings of licensed professionals in specific areas. The EPA also has published a summary guide in order to guarantee that homeowners are protected during any asbestos inspection or removal6 (see the Appendix at the end of this chapter for regional offices).
Before work begins, the homeowner should receive a written contract specifying the work plan, cleanup, and applicable federal, state, and local regulations that the contractor must follow (such as notification requirements and asbestos disposal procedures). The homeowner also should contact the state and local health departments, the EPAs regional office, and the Occupational Safety and Health Administration’s (OSHAs) regional office to find out what the regulations are. Be sure the contractor follows local asbestos removal and disposal laws. At the end of the job, the homeowner should get written assurance from the contractor that all procedures have been followed.
The homeowner needs to verify that the contractor avoids spreading or tracking asbestos dust into other areas of the home. The contractor should seal the work area from the rest of the house using plastic sheeting and duct tape, turn off the heating and air – conditioning system, and tape over all vents. For some repairs, such as pipe insulation removal, plastic glove bags may be adequate. They must be sealed with tape and properly disposed of when the job is complete.
The homeowner should verify that the contractor clearly marks the work site as a hazard area. Household members and pets will not be allowed into the area until work is completed. On completion, the homeowner should make sure that the contractor cleans the area well with wet mops, wet rags, sponges, or HEPA (high-efficiency particulate air) vacuum cleaners. A regular vacuum cleaner must never be used. Wetting helps reduce the chance of spreading asbestos fibers in the air. All asbestos materials and disposable equipment and clothing used on the job must be placed in sealed, leakproof, and labeled plastic bags. The work site should be visually free of dust and debris. Air monitoring (to make sure there is no increase in asbestos fibers in the air) may be necessary to ensure that the contractor’s job is done properly. This should be done by someone not associated with the contractor.6
Homeowner sampling. Although not recommended, a homeowner may want to do his or her own sampling in order to save a lot of money in consulting fees. The EPAhas presented a few guidelines:
1. Make sure no one else is in the room when sampling is done.
2. Wear disposable gloves or wash hands after sampling.
3. Shut down any heating or cooling systems to minimize the spread of any released fibers.
4. Do not disturb the material any more than is needed to take a small sample.
5. Place a plastic sheet on the floor below the area to be sampled.
6. Wet the material using a fine mist of water containing a few drops of detergent before taking the sample. The water-detergent mist will reduce the release of asbestos fibers.
7. Carefully cut a piece from the entire depth of the material using, for example, a small knife, corer, or other sharp object. Place the small piece into a clean container (e. g., a 35-mm film canister, small glass or plastic vial, or high-quality resealable plastic bag).
8. Tightly seal the container after the sample is in it.
9. Carefully dispose of the plastic sheet. Use a damp paper towel to clean up any material on the outside of the container or around the area sampled. Dispose of asbestos materials according to state and local procedures. (One should never vacuum loose asbestos because the vacuum cleaner will only distribute the very fine, virtually invisible fibers throughout the house, thus exposing the whole household to asbestos.)
10. Label the container with an identification number and clearly state when and where the sample was taken.
11. Patch the sampled area with the smallest possible piece of duct tape to prevent fiber release.6
The cost should be around $30 for the laboratory work. Send the sample to an EPA-approved laboratory for analysis. The National Institute for Standards and Technology (NIST) has a list of these laboratories (see the Appendix at the end of this chapter).
The Health Effects Institute, in an EPA-financed report ordered by Congress in 1991, conducted a comprehensive study on the risks of asbestos in buildings. The study revealed that the lifetime risk of cancer for someone who works in a building containing asbestos is 1 in 250,000. Ironically, outdoor air in urban areas causes a 1 in 25,000 lifetime risk of cancer.3
As mentioned earlier, intact and undisturbed asbestos materials generally do not pose a health risk. ACMs, however, can become hazardous by releasing fibers due to damage or deterioration over time. These fibers can be up to 1200 times thinner than a human hair. When inhaled, they become trapped and aggravate the lung tissues, which causes the tissues to scar. Because the material is durable, it persists over tissue and concentrates as repeated exposures occur over time. Unfortunately, medical researchers state that up to 30 years after inhalation, asbestos fibers can cause diseases such as asbestosis, lung cancer, or mesothelioma. Disease generally occurs in workers and others who have experienced prolonged work-related exposure to asbestos; the health effects of lower exposures in the home are less certain. However, experts are unable to provide assurance that any level of exposure to asbestos fibers is completely safe.
Asbestosis. Asbestosis is a serious, chronic, noncancerous respiratory disease. Symptoms of asbestosis include shortness of breath and a dry crackling sound in the lungs while inhaling. In its advanced stages, the disease may cause cardiac failure. The risk of asbestosis is minimal for those who do not work with asbestos; the disease is rarely caused by neighborhood or family exposures. Those who renovate or demolish buildings that contain asbestos may be at significant risk, depending on the nature of the exposure and the precautions taken. There is no effective treatment for asbestosis; the disease is usually disabling or fatal.
Lung cancer. Lung cancer causes the largest number of deaths related to asbestos exposure. Asbestos exposure is responsible for 4 to 7 percent of lung cancer cases in the United States.1 The most common symptoms of lung cancer are coughing and a change in breathing. Other symptoms include shortness of breath, persistent chest pains, hoarseness, and anemia. The incidence of lung cancer in people who are directly involved in the mining, milling, manufacturing, and use of asbestos and its products is much higher than in the general population. Research indicates that people who have been exposed to asbestos and are also exposed to some other carcinogen, such as cigarette smoke, have a significantly greater risk of developing lung cancer than people who have only been exposed to asbestos. One study found that asbestos workers who smoke are about 90 times more likely to develop lung cancer than people who neither smoke nor have been exposed to asbestos.
Mesothelioma. Mesothelioma is a rare form of cancer that occurs most commonly in the thin membrane lining of the lungs, chest, abdomen, and sometimes the heart. About 200 cases are diagnosed each year in the United States. Virtually all cases of mesothelioma are linked with asbestos exposure. Approximately 2 percent of all miners and textile workers who work with asbestos and 10 percent of all workers who were involved in the manufacture of asbestos – containing gas masks contract mesothelioma.7
Evidence suggests that cancers in the esophagus, larynx, oral cavity, stomach, colon, and kidney may be caused by ingesting asbestos. For more information on asbestos-related cancers, contact the local chapter of the American Cancer Society.
The EPA is responsible for developing and enforcing regulations necessary to protect the general public from exposure to airborne contaminants that are known to be hazardous to human health. Although most regulations refer to commercial projects and schools, the concerns for residential asbestos installations must not be overlooked. Primary federal asbestos regulations can be found in EPAs “Green Book.” Many are summarized in the following text; however, people involved in asbestos work should obtain and must follow all applicable federal and state regulations.
National emission standards for hazardous air pollutants (NESHAP), 40 CFR 61, Subpart M. The Clean Air Act (CAA) of 1970 requires EPA to develop and enforce regulations to protect the general public from exposure to airborne contaminants that are known to be hazardous to human health. In accordance with Section 112 of the CAA, EPA established national emission standards for hazardous air pollutants (NESHAP). Asbestos was one of the first hazardous air pollutants regulated under Section 112. On March 31, 1971, EPA identified asbestos as a hazardous pollutant, and on April 6, 1973, EPA promulgated the asbestos NESHAP in 40 CFR Part 61, Subpart M. The asbestos NESHAP has been amended several times, most recently in November 1990.6
The asbestos NESHAP is intended to minimize the release of asbestos fibers during activities involving the handling of asbestos.
Accordingly, it specifies removal of asbestos and work practices to be followed prior to renovations and demolitions of buildings that contain a certain threshold amount of friable asbestos. Residential buildings having four or fewer dwelling units are generally exempt from the rules. Most often, the asbestos NESHAP requires action to be taken by the person who owns, leases, operates, controls, or supervises the facility being demolished or renovated (the "owner”) and by the person who owns, leases, operators, controls, or supervises the demolition or renovation (the “operator”). The regulations require owners and operators subject to the asbestos NESHAP to notify delegated state and local agencies and/or their EPA regional offices before demolition or renovation activity begins. The regulations restrict the use of spray-on asbestos and prohibit the use of wet-applied and molded friable insulation (i. e., pipe lagging) that contains commercial asbestos. The asbestos NESHAP also regulates asbestos waste handling and disposal.6
Asbestos abatement projects, worker protection, final rule, 40 CFR 763, Subpart G. The EPAs worker protection rule extends the OSHA standards to state and local employees who perform asbestos work and who are not covered by the OSHA asbestos standards or by a state OSHA plan. The rule parallels OSHA requirements and covers medical examinations, air monitoring and reporting, protective equipment, work practices, and record keeping. In addition, many state and local agencies have more stringent standards than those required by the federal government. People who plan to renovate a structure that will result in disturbing a certain amount of asbestos or who plan to demolish any building are required to notify the appropriate federal, state, and local agencies and to follow all federal, state, and local requirements for the removal and disposal of regulated asbestos-containing material.6
TSCA. In 1979, under the Toxic Substances Control Act (TSCA), EPA began an asbestos technical assistance program for building owners, environmental groups, contractors, and industry. In May 1982, EPA issued the first regulation intended to control asbestos in schools under the authority of TSCA; this regulation was known as the asbestos-in-schools rule. Starting in 1985, loans and grants have been given each year to aid local education agencies (LEAs) in conducting asbestos abatement projects under the Asbestos School Hazard Abatement Act (ASHAA).6
1986, the Asbestos Hazard Emergency Response Act (AHERA) was signed into law as Title II of TSCA. AHERA is more inclusive than the May 1982 asbestos-in-schools rule. AHERA requires LEAs to inspect their schools for asbestos-containing building materials and prepare management plans that recommend the best way to reduce the asbestos hazard. Options include repairing damaged ACM, spraying it with sealants, enclosing it, removing it, or keeping it in good condition so that it does not release fibers. The plans must be developed by accredited management planners and approved by the state. LEAs must notify parent, teacher, and employer organizations of the plans, and then the plans must be implemented. AHERA also requires accreditation of abatement designers, contractor supervisors and workers, building inspectors, and school management plan writers. Those responsible for enforcing AHERA have concentrated on educating LEAs in an effort to ensure that they comply with the regulations. Contractors who improperly remove asbestos from schools can be liable under both AHERA and NESHAP.6
Asbestos ban and phaseout rule. In 1989, EPA published the “Asbestos: Manufacture, Importation, Processing, and Distribution in Commerce Prohibitions: Final Rule” (40 CFR Part 763, Subpart I). The rule eventually would have banned about 94 percent of the asbestos used in the United States (based on 1985 estimates). However, in 1991, the U. S. Court of Appeals, Fifth Circuit, vacated and remanded the majority of the rule. Currently, the manufacture, importation, processing, and distribution of most asbestos – containing products is still legal.
The Occupational Safety and Health Administration. OSHA is also responsible for regulating environmental exposure and protecting workers from asbestos exposure. Asbestos-related information and procedures can be found in OSHAs construction industry asbestos standard (29 CFR 1926.58 and 29 CFR 1926.1101). These standards apply to activities involving demolition, removal, or renovation.
Recent studies have revealed that in many cases the government, the EPA, the media, and even the public may have overreacted to asbestos building products-related health hazards. The high-profile cases involved workers who had spent years in clouds of asbestos dust. Nevertheless, the inexcusable fact that asbestos companies had actual knowledge of the dangers and health hazards of their asbestos products many years ago has formed the basis for the award of punitive damages against a number of asbestos manufacturing companies. These punitive damages are awarded by juries to punish the asbestos companies for their conduct of concealing the dangers and health hazards of asbestos from their workers, customers, the public, and the government, thereby bringing about unnecessary injury and death to a great number of people. Juries have awarded punitive damages against the following asbestos companies: Owens Corning, Owens Illinois, W. R. Grace, Armstrong World Industries, GAF, and U. S. Gypsum. To date, over 40,000 lawsuits have been resolved, with another 200,000 pending.[12] [13] [14] [15] [16] [17] [18]
In summary, it is well established that one should take every precaution necessary to avoid contact with asbestos materials. If asbestos-containing materials such as walls, ceilings, pipes, and boilers have been identified, the homeowner should perform routine inspections to verify that the material does not become damaged or friable. One government agency has assembled a simple checklist to use in the home.2
8. Do not brush, sweep, or sand ceilings and walls that contain asbestos insulation.
9. Do not knock the plaster or ceiling panels loose when replacing light bulbs or fixtures.
10. Do not saw or drill holes in asbestos materials.
11. Keep activities to a minimum in any areas having damaged materials that may contain asbestos.
12. Have analysis and corrective-type work performed by licensed asbestos professionals.
13. Do not dust, sweep, or vacuum debris that may contain asbestos. These actions will disturb tiny asbestos fibers and may release them into the air.
14. Change shoes before going back upstairs from the basement if there are damaged asbestos materials present in the basement.
15. Use a wet mop or wet cloth when cleaning areas that may contain asbestos fibers. Dispose of the mop or cloth when done.
16. Take care not to run into or hit the asbestos material with anything.2
Insulating Board
Structural insulating board, or insulating board, may have been a misnomer because it was more wallboard than insulating board. Nevertheless, most early wallboard products were used either as insulation or sheathing beneath exterior cladding or as a finish material for secondary spaces, such as attics and basements. The distinguishing characteristic of insulation board is that it combines strength with thermal and sound-deadening properties.8 Although still available as an exterior sheathing product, it has largely been replaced by plywood, oriented strandboard, and other exterior sheathing products. Interior applications are also a far cry from its popularity experienced in the homebuilding industry during the 1940s and 1950s.
Since the generic term insulating board encompasses a wide variety of materials, the historical products discussed in the scope of this book will be limited to those also known as fiber wallboards or interior fiberboard. Popular manufacturers included Celotex, Insulite Division of M. & O. Paper Company, Homasote, and Upson Companies. Although structural fiberboard is a present-day “cousin” to these interior products, the gypsum wallboard market appears to have replaced the once-popular use of insulating board.
Insulating board is made by processing wood, cane, or other vegetable fibers to a pulp and then reassembling the fibers into boards. Although there were a variety of manufacturing processes, the majority of fiberboard was formed by mechanical processing. Typically, sawmill waste or logs were processed into pulp chips and then sized and moved onto the grinder and exposed to steam pressure. Water was then used to soften the fiber bonds of the wood and permit better natural bonding in the consolidation stage. The pulp matter was allowed to flow in a current of water onto a screen, where heavy pressure was applied to remove excess water and form pulp sheets. The sheets were then compressed between platens with a uniform force generated by hydraulic rams. Platens contained either steam or hot water, and they provided plain, smooth surfaces against which the fiberboard was molded. Pressure reduced the mass of wood fibers to a stiff, strong, dense board of interlocked fibers. The last step included drying, trimming, and fabricating to produce special finishes, colors, beveling, kerfing, laminating, and packaging.
The greatest changes in the manufacturing process of insulation board related to the speed with which boards could be produced. In 1910, insulation boards 72" thick needed 36 hours to dry; by 1947, the drying process had been reduced to 50 minutes.
According to a 1947 text on insulation products, the principal insulating board interior products were referred to as building board, tileboard (panels), and planks. Building board products were 4 ft in width and varied in length from 6 to 12 ft. Thicknesses were V2 or Iм. Tileboard was manufactured from the same basic stock as building board but in much smaller sizes. Insulating board planks were long, narrow units produced in several widths ranging from 8 to 16" and lengths up to 12 ft.
Low-density boards were generally of greater thickness and also used for thermal and sound insulating purposes. Products such as Celotex’s building board were used as exterior finishes or as sheathing under roofing materials or wall veneers of brick, siding, wood shingles, or stucco. In 1937, Celotex introduced Cemesto, a fire-resistant insulation board surfaced on one or both sides with asbestos cement, which was used in low-cost housing, service stations, and industrial drying plants, as well as for partitions in office and commercial buildings.
The post-World War II construction industry required mass production of insulation boards to meet American and international demand for this material. In turn, this encouraged continued research and development of rapid production and finishing techniques, including application of paints, lacquer, plastics, and metals to make boards better suited for interior and exterior finishing of houses.
Contractors generally applied insulation boards to the studs in any frame construction on 12 or 16" centers. Then 2×4 headers were inserted flush between the wood studs to provide a nailing surface for panel edges. Nails typically were spaced 3" apart and not less than 3/8" from the panel edge. Wood battens often were used to cover the nails at the board edges unless finishing nails or brads were used inconspicuously. Building boards without a factory finish were stained or painted. Insulating board lath also was used when a plaster coat was to be applied as the interior finish.
Insulation board could be installed directly beneath the roofing material or between the structural framing members of the attic floor or both. When used with flat roofs, insulation board was installed over the roof deck and under the roofing; however, in some instances it was installed in the ceiling. When insulation board was used for sound conditioning, a suspended ceiling type of construction was recommended.
Urea Formaldehyde Foam Insulation
Formaldehyde is a naturally occurring substance that is found not only in forests but also as a necessary metabolite in our body cells. Commercially, it is a chemical used widely by industry to manufacture building materials and numerous household products. For example, formaldehyde is released into the air by burning wood, running kerosene space heaters and unvented fuel-burning appliances such as gas stoves, automobile exhaust, and cigarette smoke. Formaldehyde also can off-gas from some building materials when it is used in the production process. These include the glue or adhesive in pressed-wood products (particleboard, hardwood plywood, and fiberboard); preservatives in some paints, coatings, and cosmetics; and the coating that provides permanent press-quality to fabrics and draperies.9
High levels of formaldehyde can be an irritant or even a health concern as well. When formaldehyde gas is present in the air at levels above 0.1 ppm, it can cause watery eyes; burning sensations in the eyes, nose, and throat; nausea; coughing; chest tightness; wheezing; skin rashes; and allergic reactions. It also has been observed to cause cancer in scientific studies using laboratory animals and may cause cancer in humans. Studies indicate that any risk of causing cancer is believed to be small at the level at which humans typically are exposed.10
Urea formaldehyde foam insulation (UFFI) is a low-density foam prepared at the construction site. It is produced from a mixture of urea formaldehyde resin, an acidic foaming agent solution, and a propellant, usually compressed air. This highly expandable foam – in-place insulation is machine-mixed and pumped through a tube, where it expands to fill a cavity. Until it hardens, it looks and feels like shaving cream. It is usually white or cream colored, although it may be tinted blue. After curing, UFFI looks and feels like dried – up shaving cream, resembling a crumbly structure with a powdery residue. A positive identification can only be made through laboratory testing.
This method of onsite preparation is potentially dangerous because the chemicals are not always combined in the right proportions. In many homes the foam ingredients were improperly mixed, which resulted in excessive formaldehyde gas being released in the house. If too much formaldehyde was used, gas would seep into the home. Some formaldehyde gas also is released during the onsite mixing and curing, which mandates adequate ventilation for the installer. Although formaldehyde is colorless, it has a very strong odor, which generally can be detected at concentrations above 1 ppm. It is this by-product of the curing of the foam that has become a controversial issue.
UFFI was first used in Europe but quickly became popular in Canada in the 1970s. The insulation was used most extensively from 1975 to 1978, during the period of the Canadian Home Insulation Program (CHIP), when financial incentives were offered by the government to upgrade home insulation levels. Although more than 100,000 Canadian homes were insulated with UFFI during this time, health complaints started from the occupants of UFFI-insulat – ed homes around 1978.11 Although the Canadian Mortgage and Housing Corporation (CMHC) gave UFFI preliminary acceptance, provided that certain criteria were met, in 1977, it was found in 1979 that formaldehyde caused cancer in laboratory rats. UFFI subsequently was banned across Canada on December 17,1980.11 On June 15,1981, a government removal assistance program for homeowners was announced that ran until September 1986.
Similar action was taken in the United States. By 1979, the Consumer Product Safety Commission (CPSC) had received several hundred complaints, the majority from Massachusetts home – owners. (It is believed that about 10,000 homes in Massachusetts also were insulated with UFFI.12) In February 1982, the CPSC ordered a ban on all sales of UFFI for homes and schools. The CPSC ruled that because formaldehyde gas often is released from the foam after installation, UFFI presents an “unreasonable health risk.” In April 1983, however, a federal appellate court struck down this ban. The court ruled that there was not sufficient scientific evidence to justify the ban. Litigation in Canada yielded similar results. After the longest and most expensive civil case ever held in Canada, lasting 8 years and concluded in the Quebec Superior Court, not only was there no basis for a settlement found, but the plaintiffs also were obliged to pay for most of the costs.13
In 1985, Massachusetts enacted legislation that required sellers to disclose if UFFI had ever been installed at a property. Still in effect today, the seller has to provide the lending institution with a form disclosing any knowledge of the insulation’s presence.14
Since the sale of urea formaldehyde foam insulation has largely stopped, the CPSC has modified the warnings against UFFI. The CPSC still believes that the evidence shows that risks are associated with UFFI; CPSC officials now advise consumers to leave insulation alone if they have not experienced any health problems.15 In a 1990 technical document, the CPSC stated that formaldehyde released from UFFI decreases rapidly after the first few months and reaches background levels in a few years. Therefore, urea-formaldehyde foam insulation installed 5 to 10 years ago is unlikely to still release formaldehyde.10
History now shows that even though the U. S. Court of Appeals struck down the law because there was no substantial evidence clearly linking UFFI to health complaints, the marketability of UFFI already had been destroyed.13 Even today, in many states, real estate agents must inform prospective buyers if a house contains UFFI. Whether it is a problem in a particular house or not, it is going to be viewed as a liability.16 UFFI is still used in Europe, where it was never banned and is considered by some as one of the better retrofit insulations.
As mentioned earlier, UFFI is usually white, cream colored, or has a bluish tint. Resembling dried-up shaving cream, it has a crumbly structure and a powdery residue. If UFFI is suspected in a dwelling, more extensive testing should be undertaken by an environmental specialist. If the gases are below the prescribed levels of 0.1 ppm, no further remedial action is necessary. Formaldehyde gas levels typically decline rapidly to below this level after the first year. Since UFFI generally was installed years ago, any vapors from the insulation would be negligible.
Many of the problems eventually caused by UFFI were due to faulty installation. This was due in large part to the fact that the installed product could not effectively be standardized because it was prepared on site. Even though the foam’s ingredients may have been of the highest quality, the composition of the installed material was largely dependent on the skill of the installer.
UFFI was installed by using a pumpset and hoses with a mixing gun to mix the foaming agent and the resin. Installed under air pressure up to 100 lb/in2, UFFI was injected through V2 to 2" holes in mortar joints, gypsum wallboard, wood siding, aluminum siding, concrete blocks, etc. UFFI was particularly suitable for use in cavities of existing buildings because it foamed to full dimension before injection into the cavity. The danger of expanding foam thereby was eliminated. Shrinkage of UFFI was common, usually between 1 and 3 percent. Canadian sources state that almost all types of construction had UFFI installed during the 1970s. UFFI was used in attics, common walls of row houses or semidetached homes, office walls, apartment buildings, condominiums, and garage ceilings where rooms are over garages. Applications also included sound insulation as well as air sealant in commercial and industrial structures.17
Once again, UFFI insulation should not be confused with other foam insulations that are often installed by homeowners as a sealant around windows, doors, and foundation sills. These foams, usually urethane from aerosol cans, harden to tough, plastic materials, whereas UFFI sets to a friable material that turns to dust when touched.
Formaldehyde is currently considered by OSHA and the National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) to be a category 1 potential occupational carcinogen, which means that formaldehyde potentially may cause cancer in humans. No federal standard has been set for formaldehyde; however, OSHA now regulates formaldehyde as a carcinogen. OSHA has adopted a permissible exposure level (PEL) of 0.75 ppm and an action level of 0.5 ppm. OSHA also requires labeling informing exposed workers about the presence of formaldehyde in products entering workplaces that can cause levels to exceed 0.1 ppm. Some states have established a standard of 0.4 ppm in their codes for residences; others have established much lower recommendations (e. g., the California guideline is 0.05 ppm). Based on current information, it is advisable to mitigate formaldehyde that is present at levels higher than 0.1 ppm.18
Formaldehyde is normally present at low levels, usually less than 0.03 ppm, in both outdoor and indoor air. (This number will vary because the outdoor air in rural areas has lower concentrations, whereas urban areas have higher concentrations.) By comparison, typical levels in the smoking section of a cafeteria are 0.16 ppm.13 Products such as carpets or gypsum board do not contain significant amounts of formaldehyde when new, but they may trap formaldehyde emitted from other sources and later release the formaldehyde into the indoor air when the temperature and humidity change.
Residences or offices that contain products that release formaldehyde to the air can have formaldehyde levels of greater than 0.03 ppm. Products that may add formaldehyde to the air include particleboard used as flooring underlayment, shelving, furniture, and cabinets; MDF in cabinets and furniture; hardwood plywood wall panels; and urea-formaldehyde foam used as insulation. As formaldehyde levels increase, illness or discomfort is more likely to occur and may be more serious.10
A number of studies have been done examining the health effects of UFFI. In a study in Britain, people who worked in environments with high formaldehyde levels, such as morticians and laboratory technicians, were studied for possible health effects. These subjects were found to have a less-than-average number of respiratory diseases and actually lived slightly longer, on average. Studies using a random sampling of UFFI and non-UFFI homes, done before the ban, showed no impact of UFFI on health. However, studies done after the ban showed increased reporting of symptoms, even for such things as constipation and deafness, which have no biologic basis.13
As mentioned earlier, formaldehyde emissions from building materials decrease as the materials age, particularly over the first 2 or 3 years. Older urea-formaldehyde building materials most probably will not be a significant source of formaldehyde emissions. If the presence of formaldehyde is suspected, a qualified building inspector should be hired to examine the home for the presence of formaldehyde-emitting materials. In addition, home monitoring kits are currently available for testing formaldehyde levels in the home. Be sure that the testing device will monitor for a minimum of 24 hours to ensure that the sampling period is truly representative.18 Inexpensive passive samplers, which usually run for several days, and detector tubes also have been developed, whereas the more accurate method of collecting formaldehyde is by impingers. Technically known as the chromatropic acid test, it usually takes about 90 minutes. Testing should be performed when the relative humidity is over 50 percent and the temperature is above 70°F.19
UFFI has been referred to as the most thoroughly investigated and most innocuous building product in Canada. Whether this is true or not, it has certainly gained notoriety for all the wrong reasons. Its virtual elimination from the marketplace also may prove to have been for “the wrong reason”; however, when it comes to a question of personal health, few homeowners are willing, or should be forced, to take unnecessary risks.
Appendix
For further information on asbestos and UFFI, contact
U. S. Consumer Product Safety Commission Washington, DC 20207 800-638-2772 http:/ /www. cpsc. gov
The regional offices of the EPA are perhaps the best sources of additional information about environmental hazards in specific states and local areas. Each EPA regional office has information on states and areas within a single geographic area.
U. S. Environmental Protection Agency
Public Information Center
401 M Street, SW
Washington, DC 20460
202-475-7751
EPA Region 1 (Connecticut, Maine, Massachusetts, New Hampshire, Rhode Island, and Vermont)
John F. Kennedy Federal Building Room 2203 Boston, MA 02203 617-565-3715
EPA Region 2 (New Jersey, New York, Puerto Rico, and the Virgin Islands)
26 Federal Plaza New York, NY 10278 212-264-2515
EPA Region 3 (Delaware, Maryland, Pennsylvania, Virginia, Washington, D. C., and West Virginia)
841 Chestnut Street Philadelphia, PA 19107 800-438-2474
EPA Region 4 (Alabama, Florida, Georgia, Kentucky, Mississippi, North Carolina, South Carolina, and Tennessee)
345 Courtland Street, NE Atlanta, GA 30365 800-282-0239 in Georgia 800-241-1754 in other Region 4 states
EPA Region 5 (Illinois, Indiana, Michigan, Minnesota, Ohio, and Wisconsin)
230 South Dearborn Street
Chicago, IL 60604
800-572-2515 in Illinois
800-621-8431 in other Region 5 states
EPA Region 6 (Arkansas, Louisiana, New Mexico, Oklahoma, and Texas)
1445 Ross Avenue Suite 1200 Dallas, TX 75202 214-655-2200
EPA Region 7 (Iowa, Kansas, Missouri, and Nebraska)
726 Minnesota Avenue Kansas City, KS 66101 913-236-2803
EPA Region 8 (Colorado, Montana, North Dakota, South Dakota, Utah, and Wyoming)
999 18th Street Suite 500 Denver, CO 80202 800-759-4372
EPA Region 9 (Arizona, California, Hawaii, and Nevada)
215 Fremont Street San Francisco, CA 94105 415-974-8076
EPA Region 10 (Alaska, Idaho, Oregon, and Washington)
1200 Sixth Avenue Seattle, WA 98101 206-442-5810
J. May Home Inspections, Inc.
1522 Cambridge St
Cambridge MA 02139
617-354-0152
Fax: 617-354-0749
E-mail: jmhi@shell. cybercom. net
NCI Public Inquiries Office Cancer Information Service Building, 31, Room 10A03 31 Center Drive, MSC 2580 Bethesda, MD 20892-2580 301-435-3848
Laboratory Accreditation Administration NIST
Gaithersburg, MD 20899 301-975-4016
Restoration Environmental Contractors (REC)
Don Bremner
Vice President of Operations and Project Manager Box 746
10 Stalwart Industrial Drive, Unit 5 Gormley, Ontario, Canada L0H 1G0 800-894-4924
http:/ /www. environmentalhazards. com/contact/index. htm
References
1. USA Today, February 9, 1999.
2. New Jersey Department of Health and Senior Services, Consumer and Environmental Health Services.
3. Todd Buchanan, USA Today, February 11, 1999.
4. Shelley Murphy, “Class-Action Lawsuits Filed Against W. R. Grace,” Boston Globe, February 23, 2000, p. Bl.
5. Associated Press, “Suits Filed Against W. R. Grace Over Asbestos-Tainted Insulation,” Boston Globe, February 24, 2000.
6. Architectural Graphic Standards CD-ROM, (New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1998).
7. http:/ /www. pp. okstate. edu/ehs/modules/asbharm. htm.
8. Paul Dunham Close, Sound Control and Thermal Insulation of Buildings (New York: Reinhold Publishing Corporation, 1966), p. 234.
9. “Sources of Information on Indoor Air Quality, Formaldehyde,” EPA Web site: http:/ /www. epa. gov/iedweb00/formalde. html.
10. “An Update on Formaldehyde: 1997 Revision,” CPSC Document No. 725, U. S. Consumer Safety Commission. Available at http://www. cpsc. gov/cpscpub/ pubs/ 725.html.
11. Brian J. Mitchell, The Residential Energy Efficiency Database (REED). Available at http:/ /www. its-canada. com/reed/iaq/uffi. htm.
12. Robert S. Kutner, Boston Herald, April 9, 1999.
13. Alan Carson and John Caverly, “Urea Formaldehyde Foam Insulation, Much Ado About Nothing?” reprinted in The Inspector, the newsletter for the Ontario Association of Home Inspectors, Spring 1993.
14. J. May Home Inspections, Inc., Web site: http:/ /www. cybercom.
net / ~jmhi/noframes. html.
15. NCI Public Inquiries Office, Cancer Information Service Web site: http: / /cis. nci. nih. gov /fact /3_8. htm.
16. John Bower, Indiana Builder (September 1990): 30.
17. Restoration Environmental Contractors (REC): http://www. environmental- hazards. com / contact / index, htm.
18. “Typical Indoor Air Pollutants,” Appendix E, March 23, 1998. Available at http:/ /www. epa. gov/iaq/schools/tfs/guidee. html.
19. J. May Home Inspections, Inc., email correspondence, May 14, 2000.
Chapter
Future Insulation Products and
Technologies
Advances are being made in the development of technologically superior insulation products. Some of these products include aerogels, powder-filled panels, evacuated panels, vacuum insulation panels, and phase-change materials. Not only are these technologies a significant departure from thermal mass-type materials, they are generally thinner, lighter, and possess much higher R-val – ues than common insulation materials available today.
Aerogels
Aerogels have great potential in a wide range of applications that include energy-efficient insulation and windows, acoustics, gas – phase catalysis, battery technology, and microelectronics. Besides being the best thermal, electrical, and acoustic insulators known, aerogels are finding application as filters for seawater desalination, micrometeoroid collectors, and subatomic particle detectors. In the future, aerogels could be used in windows, building insulation, automobile catalytic converters, and high-efficiency battery electrodes.
Aerogels, on a per-weight basis, may be the strongest, lightest, and most transparent building material ever produced. Aerogels are one of the few existing materials that are both transparent and porous. Typically produced from silicon or carbon, aerogels are solid with a porous, spongelike structure in which 99 percent of the volume is empty space. Weighing as little as three times as much
as air, a single lM-thick piece of this silica-based material has the internal surface area of a basketball court.1 It can be formed into almost any useful shape and makes an excellent insulator.2
Most important are the thermal dissipation properties possessed by aerogels. For example, a piece of chocolate resting on a crackersized aerogel disk will not melt when torched by a blue flame 1 cm beneath the disk.2 In more relative terms, Iм of a type of aerogel in a vacuum offers insulation equivalent to 10" of fiberglass.3
Aerogels were first discovered in 1931 by physicist Steven S. Kistler of the College of the Pacific, in Stockton, California. He proved experimentally that liquid-based gels (or jellies) were an open solid network of cells permeated by liquid. Kistler stated, “…if one wishes to produce an aerogel, one must replace the liquid with air by some means in which the surface of the liquid is never permitted to recede within the gel. If a liquid is held under pressure always greater than the vapor pressure, and the temperature is raised, it will be transformed at the critical temperature into a gas without two phases having been present at any time.”4
Kistler made the first aerogel by soaking a water-based gel in alcohol to replace the water. Then he heated the alcohol and gel in a closed container to a high temperature and pressure and slowly depressurized the vessel. This allowed the alcohol, now a vapor, to escape, leaving an air-filled cellular matrix.2
Aerogel research was largely abandoned until the 1980s when, using new chemicals, it was produced for elementary particle detectors. Soon after this, a new, safer method of production was developed under the leadership of Arlon J. Hunt at the Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory, leading to identification of applications for aerogels as insulators and later as cosmic dust collectors on two space missions.5 Aerogels also were used for insulation on the Mars rover Pathfinder.
Aerogel starts out as a delicate three-dimensional framework of clusters of molecules linked together in a liquid medium. The liquid helps support the framework and holds the clusters in place. The linked clusters create a springy molecular mesh containing thousands of open pores filled with fluid, similar to a wet sponge.
To create aerogel, the liquid must be removed carefully from the mesh. Under normal conditions, capillary pressures generated by evaporation of the liquid cause the framework to collapse on itself. As the gel’s interior walls squeeze together, reactive molecules permanently bond, leaving a compressed semiporous gel that is a fraction of its original volume.
Silica aerogel is the best known and most widely prepared aerogel. A simplified silica aerogel recipe, according to the Aerogel Research Laboratory at the University of Virginia, begins by combining a silica-based solution with 200-proof ethanol, ammonium hydroxide, and water, which form a Jello-like substance called alco – gel. The alcogel is then soaked in ethanol for a length of time sufficient to extract the water from the alcogel. Once most of the water has been replaced by alcohol, the alcogel is ready to be supercriti – cally dried, a process that removes liquid from the microstructure of the alcogel. The alcogel is placed in a pressure chamber that is filled with carbon dioxide. When the C02 replaces the alcohol, the chamber is heated and pressurized in a supercritical drying process. When it returns to room temperature and standard pressure, the process is finished, and an aerogel is the result.5
A typical aerogel is a solid foam consisting of 5 percent silica (Si02 or common sand) and 95 percent air-filled pores. Both the pores and their properties are smaller than the wavelength of light (less than 100 billionths of a meter).5 The silica particles are 2 to 5 nm in diameter; the pores are about 20 nm wide. The unique microstructure of aerogels—nanometer-sized cells, pores, and particles—means low thermal conduction. Some silica aerogels contain as little as 0.13 percent silica, with the remainder (99.87 percent) being air.6
The optical properties of silica aerogels are best described as “transparent” and thus are considered most likely for window or skylight applications. This may seem obvious, since silica aerogels are made of the same material as glass but do have the same optical characteristics. While distant objects can be viewed through several centimeters of silica aerogel, the material displays a slight bluish haze when an illuminated piece is viewed against a dark background and slightly reddens transmitted light.7 This blue color arises from the presence of large pores formed during the gella – tion, and the hypothesis currently being tested by the most recent NASA experiments centers on whether a more uniform and therefore transparent gel can be made in space. Since aerogel has the equivalent thermal insulating quality of 10 to 20 glass window panes, the energy-conserving effects of an aerogel window replacement would significantly lower heating bills, particularly in northern climates.1
The transfer of thermal conduction through the solid portion of the aerogel is limited by the small connections between the particles making up the conduction path. Gaseous conduction is limited because the cells/pores are only the size of the mean free path for molecular collisions—molecules collide with the solid network as frequently as they collide with each other. Radiative conduction is low because aerogels have small mass fractions and large surface areas—although conductivity increases with temperature.8
Aerogels in a partial vacuum are even better insulators because removing most of the air from their pores eliminates half to two – thirds of the material’s thermal conductivity (the portion due to gas conduction). Silica aerogel in a 90 percent vacuum, which is simply and inexpensively produced, has a thermal resistance of R-20 per inch. Thus a 1-in-thick aerogel window has the same thermal resistance as a window with 10 double panes of glass. LBNL researchers have improved the performance to R-32 per inch by adding carbon to absorb infrared radiation in the material, another mechanism of heat transfer.2
Carbon aerogels are a variation of the extremely lightweight silica aerogels. Carbon aerogel is made by heating polymeric aerogel in a vacuum or inert gas (otherwise, it will oxidize or burn). Carbon aerogel is also a good insulator but is very black, so it must be used in applications where transparency is not needed. Stiffer and stronger than silica aerogels, carbon aerogels are electrically conductive. Advanced, thin-film carbon aerogel electrodes were developed at Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory (LLNL) in 1993, patented in 1995, and are now being produced commercially.9 Carbon aerogels have just recently been synthesized and represent the first electrically conductive aerogel. This property, in combination with high surface area, controllable pore size, and high purity, is leading to new electrochemical applications for these unique materials.
Organic aerogels are stiffer and stronger than silica aerogels and are measurably better insulators. They have extremely high thermal resistance—six times more resistance than fiberglass insulation. Two organic aerogels developed at LLNL have equivalent R-values of R-12 when air-filled (equivalent to the insulating capacity of 6" of fiberglass batting) and greater than R-38 when evacuated (equivalent to 19" of fiberglass). Organic aerogels can be converted to pure carbon aerogels and still retain many properties of the original aerogel, in addition to becoming electrically conductive.10
Polymeric aerogels can be transparent or deeply colored. The resorcinol aerogels are the second most widely produced aerogels and are deep red to brown in color and somewhat stronger than silica aerogels. Melamed aerogels have been made flexible and mostly transparent but have not been studied extensively and may not withstand a vacuum to get maximum thermal performance. Scientists have produced various other aerogels from metal oxides, e. g., alumina, titania, mixed alumina and silica, etc., but they are generally only made in very small sizes, e. g., centimeter samples, and tend to be fragile or have other manufacturing difficulties.11
Cost
Cost for the products currently runs high because the demand is low. One source states that aerogels are five times more expensive than polyurethane foam.12 One aerogel manufacturer produces a half-inch sheet of flexible aerogel blanket, not much bigger than a breadboard, that currently costs approximately $900. Short-term prices have been predicted to drop to approximately $35 per square foot, whereas long-term predictions drop the price of aerogel blankets to as low as $10 per square foot. The same is said to be true for the aerogel powder. One cubic foot of silica aerogel powder, available now for $2300, will fall to $60 once demand pushes production to 50,000 ft3 per year.5 The cost of carbon aerogels also should drop significantly as more manufacturing licensees are developed.9
Vacuum Insulation Panels
Vacuum insulation technology focuses on the basic physical principle that heat cannot be conducted in the absence of air. It is the absence of molecules to pass heat through a given distance that also makes a vacuum a good insulator. Known as the Dewar principle, vacuum insulation is best demonstrated by the glass vacuum bottle, also known as the common Thermos bottle, which has been used to transport and maintain hot or cold liquids for years. In a Dewar’s flask, no insulation “material” is used because the space between the dual walls of the cylinder is completely (99.999999 percent) evacuated. This creates an extremely high R-value, typically R-250 or higher, since there are no molecules of gas available to transport heat between the two walls.13
There are obvious physical limitations of the Dewar’s flask serving as practical insulation for residential applications. Additionally, since even a few molecules of gas will destroy its insulation value, the cylinder walls must be absolutely impermeable to gas and moisture. This limits the wall material to either specially treated glass or metal, both of which have a tendency to conduct significant amounts of heat at areas where the walls are joined together. Recent technological advances in materials and manufacturing processes have created a growing commercial market for these tough, flexible, and versatile products. Vacuum insulation now encompasses a wide range of filler materials clad in various types of gas-barrier exteriors. Uses include insulated shipping containers for distribution of food, pharmaceutical, and biomedical products; insulation panels in refrigerators, coolers, and packaging to allow mailing refrigerated items over long distances; insulation for the ceilings of truck and car cabs; and other applications where lightweight, thin, high-performance insulation is valued.
Vacuum insulation panels (VIPs) have been around since the mid-1950s. The principal advantage of VIPs over competing products such as polyurethane (closed-cell), expanded polystyrene, and fiberglass is their high R-value per inch of thickness. VIPs are three to seven times more effective than competing products. Depending on the core material, VIPs are also referred to as powder evacuated panels (PEPs) or simply evacuated panels.
As VIP researchers continue to explore new innovations, the composition of VIPs is likely to change. At present, the simplest construction of a VIP consists of the exterior walls that contain the vacuum and filler materials inside. Also known as the membrane film, the wall provides a barrier against atmospheric gases and moisture so that the vacuum can be maintained. Impermeable membrane materials can be glass, metal or metal foil, plastic, or a composite such as polymeric exteriors (film or sheet) with or without metallized surfaces.
For building construction applications, glass may be too fragile. Simple metal barriers can be used, but these significantly reduce the average insulation value of the finished panel owing to the conductance of heat around the edges where the walls are joined (also called the edge effect). Another disadvantage of a pure metal membrane is the high cost of forming and welding the panel.
In some barriers, a very thin metal film, such as aluminum, is reinforced by laminating a plastic film on each side. A special plastic with a low melting temperature is then added so as to allow the finished laminate to be “heat sealed” rather than welded. In an effort to reduce the edge effect even further, some films use a sputter-coated thin-film deposition technique to get the metal layer even thinner. When done correctly, these films offer a good compromise between the solid metal films and pure plastic laminates.13
The core material serves two major functions. First, it provides physical support to the membrane (or barrier) film envelope so that it does not collapse in on itself when the vacuum is applied. Second, the core material acts to interrupt the flow (free mean path) of the molecules of gas that still remain in the evacuated space, thereby reducing their ability to transfer heat between the walls of the VIP.
A number of core materials are used by different manufacturers. Powders (such as perlite, mineral powder, mineral fiber, fiberglass, silica), rigid open-celled foams (such as polyurethane and microcel – lular polystyrene foam board), or carbon/silica aerogels are used as fillers. While most of these materials are not very expensive in their raw form, they require considerable handling and preprocessing, which greatly increases the cost of the end-product. Aerogel panels achieve extremely high R-values with less vacuum than would be required with other types of cores.
Based on the specific combination of barrier material, fillers, and vacuum level, R-values from 16 to 40 per inch can be obtained at room temperature. At lower temperatures, the R-value increases. At — 10°F, for example, the R-value is in excess of 35. (One manufacturer has obtained measurements of R-60 at dry-ice temperatures.) The selection of materials to make a panel for a particular application include issues of size, shape, thickness, longevity, ruggedness, ambient temperature, and whether pass-throughs or other design requirements are involved.
Dow Chemical, manufacturer of an open-cell foam material that is vacuum sealed within a metallized film or foil, has stated that its panels have an R-value approximately six times greater than traditional fiberglass insulation. The new product consists of a patented, Г’-thick advanced insulation panel that can produce the same R-value as 6" of fiberglass insulation.14 Tests also have been conducted by the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) that produced similar results.
The finished VIP system currently costs from $4.00 to $7.00 per square foot, depending on the density of the core board and other specifications required by the customer. These prices are expected to be reduced to $3.50 to $5.00 per square foot in the very near future. The cost of the core foam board currently ranges from $0.85 to $3.00 per square foot, depending on the density, grade, and manufacturer. Currently, the fabrication process is responsible for a major portion of the cost, but cost is expected to drop with larger volumes and more efficient fabrication.
Residential applications are limited at the present. It is obvious that any mishandling or nail punctures of the relatively fragile metallized envelope during the home construction process can lead to a loss of vacuum and insulating capability of the VIP. For the same reason, it is important during the installation process that any bending of the joined flanges of the barrier envelope surrounding the core panel occur adjacent to, rather than on, the seal. Current trends seem to suggest that it is only a matter of time before more durable products will be available for home construction. Processes are currently in development that apply a polyurethane coating to the panels to provide greater strength, durability, and specification consistency.
The life expectancy of a vacuum insulation panel is determined by a number of factors. These include the outgassing (if any) of the core material and membrane film, the permeation rate of the membrane film and sealing edge, the quantity and effectiveness of the getter and desiccant, and the effect of pressure rise on the specific core material.13 (Getters are used to absorb gases, and desiccants are used to absorb moisture within the evacuated envelope. These processes prevent or delay an elevation of the internal pressure and a degradation in R-value.)
Current VIP systems will not meet minimum insulation requirements as required by the International Energy Conservation Code
(IECC) for wall or roof insulation because of the relatively short life of the vacuum. Various sources suggest that the longest expected life of the VIP in its current form is estimated to be between 10 and 20 years. This is too low for consideration in use as wall or roof insulation, but door or window frame insulation could be a possible use. By combining silica core materials or by using certain combinations of films and getters with newer, less permeable membrane materials, projected life spans of 50+ years can be realistic. Unfortunately, high cost remains a major barrier to wide-scale adaptation of silica-based VIPs.13
Gas-Filled Panels
Another advanced insulation product that is under development is gas-filled panels (GFPs). This concept uses multiple reflective cells and gas in a sealed panel to retard heat transfer. This technology was developed by the E. O. Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory in 1989 and should be available commercially in the future.
GFPs are composed of hermetic plastic bags with a boxlike shape that enclose a honeycomb baffle of thin polymer film and a low-conductivity gas. The panel interior consists of a multilayer baffle that is bonded to both faces of the barrier envelope, which is forced apart by the gas fill. This bonded assembly uses metalized, low – emissivity film, producing a cellular structure within the panel. Moderate levels of performance are obtained with air as the fill gas. The resistance obtained with air is an R-value of 5 per inch. Higher-performance designs use low-diffusion gas barrier films to provide the hermetic barrier, whose purpose is to retain the panel’s gas fill, and can take on a variety of shapes and sizes. The best candidate gases to fill GFPs are argon and krypton because both have lower conductivities than air. Argon gas filling provides an effective thermal resistance level of R-7 per inch, krypton gas provides R – 12.5 per inch, and xenon gas provides R-20 per inch.15
GFPs are basically flexible and self-supporting. Manufacturers could fabricate GFPs in a variety of shapes and sizes to fill most types of cavities in building walls and roofs. For a typical installation of GFPs in a wood-frame wall assembly, panels are fastened to studs with staples through panel flaps. Adhesive-backed tape seals adjacent panels across the stud, so the insulation also becomes an air-barrier/moisture-retarding component. The far face of the panel adheres to the exterior sheathing to provide added air sealing and to keep the panel expanded. Researchers indicate that gas could even be added to unfilled panels on site.16
Since GFPs are not yet being manufactured, researchers provide estimated panel costs for building applications based on current material component costs. For example, an argon-filled, 3.5M-thick (89-mm) panel may cost $0.69 per square foot to manufacture, whereas a 10M-thick (254-mm) panel may cost $1.46 per square foot.16
Cost is comparable with that of CFC blown foam insulation for argon-filled GFPs that achieve similar insulation levels. Cost for air-filled GFPs is greater than fiberglass insulation for a given wall thickness, but such GFPs allow attainment of significantly greater R-values for a given wall thickness.
Argon gas may be the best choice based on price. Although krypton-filled panels yield a lower conductivity, the scarcity and high cost of krypton gas ($0.35 per liter) make it better suited for refrigerator insulation than for a building envelope. Xenon yields panels with the lowest conductivity, but its cost ($4.00 per liter) makes it useful only in exotic applications.
Testing has been limited as compared with market-established insulation materials. For example, flame-spread and smoke-generation testing needs to be performed. Full-scale wall assembly measurements that better demonstrate thermal performance in actual building installations also need to be performed.16
Argon-filled GFPs can achieve insulation values similar to those of chlorofluorocarbon (CFC) blown foams, without the use of CFCs. Gas fills are also inert and harmless. Any other environmental effects will depend on the character of the barrier and baffle materials.
The technology appears to be versatile enough for widespread use in traditional wood-frame construction, although some difficulties need to be overcome for site-built construction to make GFPs fit oddly shaped cavities. Initial uses will likely be in manufactured housing and panelized building systems.16
Phase-Change Materials
Phase-change materials (PCMs) are substances that store and release energy by changing phase. Most store energy when they turn liquid at a certain temperature and release energy when they turn solid at a certain temperature; some remain solid but undergo chemical changes that store and release energy. The change of phase occurs during the melting, solidification, or sublimation of the specific material. A PCM has the ability to absorb large amounts of energy when it undergoes a change of phase. During this change of phase, the material remains at nearly a constant temperature. PCM-based devices have been used mainly for electronics cooling, telecommunication systems, and also on U. S. spacecraft, including some shuttle-launched missions.
PCMs now under research and development for commercial building applications can smooth daily fluctuations in room temperature by lowering the peak temperatures resulting from extremes of external daily temperature changes. The main advantage of PCMs for thermal storage is that the mass (and hence volume) required for a given storage capacity is small compared with rocks, concrete, water, or other passive solar materials.
As mentioned earlier, materials undergoing a phase change by freezing, melting, condensing, or boiling store and release large amounts of heat with small changes in temperature. PCMs allow the thermal storage to become part of the building’s structure, permitting substantial energy storage without changing the temperature of the room envelope.17 PCMs are solid at room temperature, but when temperature becomes warmer, they liquefy and absorb heat. Conversely, when the temperature drops, the material will solidify and give off heat energy. The possible use of PCMs in the building envelope would absorb the heat of higher exterior temperature and retard the heating of the interior, which is equivalent to cooling the house, during the day. As the temperature declines in the evening, the PCMs would warm the home at night as they give off heat.
Phase-change gypsum wallboard is one example of a building – integrated heat storage material. PCMs are incorporated into the gypsum wallboard panels to moderate the thermal environment within the building. The function of the PCM gypsum wallboard is very basic. As the air temperature in a room rises, so does the temperature of the wall. As the wall temperature climbs above the PCM’s transition temperature (the point at which the material changes phase), the PCM absorbs heat and melts inside the gypsum wallboard. As the room temperature decreases, the PCM releases heat and returns to a solid again. A less costly and less bulky replacement of the standard thermal mass (e. g., masonry or water) used in solar heating, it is at the present only produced for research.
Researchers believe phase-change gypsum wallboard can shift much of the summer air-conditioning load to later time periods, allowing customers to take advantage of cool night air and off – peak utility rates. The household temperatures remain relatively stable until all the PCM melts. In the winter, warming the PCMs from a conventional furnace could reduce furnace cycling and increase efficiency. Computer simulations show that PCM – treated wallboard can eliminate the need for air conditioners in mild climate zones, such as portions of California. This means that such residences will cost less to cool and possibly eliminate the cost of installing air conditioners. PCM gypsum wallboard also has an advantage over conventional thermal mass in solar heating applications. Because the exposed surface is so large and the PCM absorbs heat over a narrow temperature range, the gypsum wallboard need not receive direct sunlight. PCM gypsum wallboard has a much greater heat-storage capacity than does conventional thermal mass and provides excellent heat transfer. It demands no extra structural support, and any added installation cost is minimal.18
Researchers suggest that there are several important considerations relevant to combining PCM into gypsum wallboard. First, the transition temperature, or melting temperature, of the PCM must be near standard or suggested room temperatures. These would be 65 to 72°F for heating-dominated climates or 72 to 79°F for cooling – dominated climates. Because the PCM uses the exchange of heat energy from its environment to drive the phase change, this change of state from solid to liquid or liquid to solid characteristically occurs within a temperature range of only a few degrees. Second, the PCM product must be effective, offering good heat transfer, and be economical. Claims are that the PCM wallboard under development could save up to 20 percent of house space-conditioning costs.17
Paraffins, or waxes, may be the best choice for the PCM in gypsum wallboard. They are readily available, inexpensive, and melt at different temperatures relating to their carbon chain length. At present, paraffin is incorporated into gypsum wallboard in two ways, either by direct immersion or by permeated plastic pellets that are added to the gypsum wallboard mixture during the manufacturing process.18
Immersion is the simplest, lowest-cost method for making PCM gypsum wallboard. Although gypsum wallboard dipped in paraffin becomes water-resistant, PCM gypsum wallboard is quite flammable unless treated with fire-retardant chemicals. (This process is not recommended for do-it-yourselfers.) Polyethylene pellets, saturated with melted paraffin and then mixed with wet gypsum and compressed in sheet form, also yield production-quality gypsum wallboard. Compared with immersed gypsum wallboard, this material is more fire-resistant, less water-resistant, and conforms to the current gypsum wallboard manufacturing process. Both versions work well for heat transfer and storage, and the paraffin remains permanently in the gypsum wallboard.18
Other methods and PCMs are currently being studied, such as fatty acids, which come from meat by-products and vegetables. Cheap, renewable, and readily available different types of fatty acids also have different melting points. Fatty acids are also incorporated into the gypsum wallboard by immersion or encapsulation and yield the same heat and stability characteristics as paraffin – based PCM wallboard.18
A fundamental problem in the development of phase-change storage is that the range of temperatures over which some of the materials change phase can be quite narrow or may be a single ideal temperature, limiting the material’s use in climates where both heating and cooling are important. Researchers must resolve some issues and provide documentation before commercialization can proceed. Issues relate to proof of fire safety, perceived comfort factor, and economic payback from energy savings. With regard to PCM gypsum wallboard, the correct transition temperature for one region will not be appropriate for another. Gypsum wallboard manufacturers may be reluctant to complicate their manufacturing processes in order to take these regional variations into account.
The extended storage capacity of PCM-treated double gypsum wallboard (two sheets of gypsum wallboard attached together) can keep room temperatures close to the upper comfort limits without mechanical cooling. In climates with large diurnal temperature swings, night-time ventilation can be used to discharge the latent storage of the wallboard.17
A private company, with the help of the U. S. Department of Energy’s (DOE’s) Oak Ridge National Laboratory, has developed another building envelope application. It has tested an attic insulation that absorbs heat in the daytime and then releases it at night. Called RCR, the PCM consists of perlite embedded with hydrogenated calcium chloride. This PCM changes phase from solid to liquid at 82°F, absorbing heat from the hot attic during the day, before it can penetrate the home. When attic temperatures cool at night, the PCM solidifies and releases heat back into the attic, moderating outdoor temperatures. The PCM attic insulation would be hermetically sealed for installation between two layers of certain insulation materials such as extruded polystyrene, urethane, or cellulose.17
A computer model of the laboratory tests of the attic PCM insulation showed that it reduced the total heat flow by 22 percent, and the peak heat flow was 42 percent lower than with an equal thickness of fiberglass insulation. It reduced the air-conditioning load by 40 percent and shifted the peak load up to 8 hours, depending on the climate. PCM insulation may be most effective in climates that have sharp variations between day and night temperatures.17
According to the DOE, another new type of insulation entering the residential marketplace is plastic fiber insulation. Plastic fiber batts are made from recycled polyethylene terephthalate (PET), commonly used to make milk containers known under the trademark name, Mylar. PET-covered insulation products have been used extensively in the aviation industry. Residential products have thick fibers, making extremely soft batt insulation that looks like high-density fiberglass. R-values vary with batt density:
3.8 per inch at 1.0 lb/ft3 density
4.3 per inch at 3.0 lb/ft3 density
The recycled content and clean manufacturing process help make this polyester insulation material a good addition to the market. The insulation also does not irritate the skin. It does not burn when exposed to an open flame, but it melts at a low temperature—a definite disadvantage. The batts are also difficult to cut with standard job-site tools, and the insulation tends to accordion when handled. Major U. S. insulation manufacturers are expected to produce plastic fiber insulation products within the next few years.18
Appendix
Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy Clearinghouse (EREC)
RO. Box 3048 Merrifield, VA 22116 800-DOE-EREC E-mail: doe. erec@nciinc. com
http:// www. eren. doe. gov / consumerinfо / refbriefs / db3.html
E. O. Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory
Technology Transfer Department
MS 90-1070
Berkeley, CA 94720
510-486-6467
Fax: 510-486-6457
http:/ /www. lbl. gov/
Dr. Arlon J. Hunt Advanced Energy Technology Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory 1 Cyclotron Road MS 70-108B,
Berkeley, CA 94720
510-486-5370
E-mail: AJHunt@lbl. gov
Brent Griffith
Infrared Thermography Laboratory Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory 1 Cyclotron Road Berkeley, CA 94720 510-486-6061
E-mail: BTGriffith@lbl. gov
Corina Stetiu Jump Quantum Consulting, Inc.
Berkeley CA 510-540-7200
Email: cjump@qcworld. com
Glacier Bay, Inc.
2845 Chapman St.
Oakland, CA. 94601 510-437-9100 Fax: 510-437-9200
Ingersoll-Rand Company Compressed Air Magazine 253 E. Washington Ave.
Washington, NJ 07882
908-850-7840
Fax: 908-689-5580
http:11 www. ingersoll-rand. com /compair/ julyaug96/aero. htm
Vacuum Insulation Association
William H. Werst, Jr., Executive Director
1600 Wilson Boulevard, Suite 901
Arlington, VA 22209
703-516-4506
Fax: 703-812-8743
Email: staff@vacuuminsulate. org
http:// www. vacuuminsulate. org /
VacuPanel, Inc.
Chris Meyer, President
50 South Detroit Street
Xenia, OH 45385
937-376-8233
Fax: 937-376-2781
E-mail: vacupanel@erinet. com
http.7 / www. vacupanel. com /
References
1. Aerogel Research at NASA/Marshall, “Microgravity Science: Aerogel in Your House. The House of the Future?” Available at http://science. nasa. gov/ newhome / help / tutorials / house future, htm.
2. Center for Building Science News Newsletter, Fall, 1995. Available at http: / /eande. lbl. gov / CBS /NEWSLETTER /NL8 /Aerogel, html.
3. http://www. sgn. com/invent/extra/gel. html.
4. Arlon Hunt and Michael Ayers, “A Brief History of Silica Aerogels.” Available at http: / / eande. lbl. gov /ECS / aerogels / sahist. htm.
5. Douglas Page, “Aerogels: Much Ado About Nothing,” High Technology Careers Magazine. Available at http:/ /www. hightechcareers. com.
6. ©2000 About. com, Inc. See http://chemistry. about. com/education/chem- istry / library / weekly / aal20798a. htm? iam=mt.
7. “Optical Properties of Silica Aerogels,” Microstructured Materials Group at Berkeley Lab Web site: http:7 /eande. lbl. gov/ECS/aerogels/saoptic. htm.
8. “Aerogel for Thermal Insulation,” Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory.
9. Kennedy/Jenks Consultants, http:/ /www. kennedyjenks. com/.
10. Veronica Lanier, Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, University of California for the U. S. Department of Energy: http://www. llnl. gov/ IPandC / op96/ 07/ 7a-aer. html.
11. Arlon Hunt, email correspondence with Rick Bynum, E. O. Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory.
12. Ingersoll-Rand Company, Compressed Air Magazine.
13. “Vacuum Insulation Panels (VIPs): Principles, Performance and Lifespan.” Available at http:/ /www. glacierbay. com/vacpanelinfo. htm.
14. Hunter Fanney, National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST).
15. http:/ /gfp. lbl. gov/performance/default. htm.
16. Brent Griffith, “Gas-Filled Panels: An Update on Applications in the Building Thermal Envelope,” Alaska Building Science News 4(2), 1998.
17. Helmut Feustel and Corina Stetiu (Jump), “Thermal Performance of Phase – Change Wallboard for Residential Cooling,” CBS Newsletter (Fall 1997): 6. Available at http:/ /eande. lbl. gov f CBS f NEWSLETTER INL16 f Phase. html.
18. Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy Clearinghouse (EREC): http: / / www. eren. doe. gov / consumerinfo / refbriefs / db3.html.
Appendix
A
Miscellaneous Figures and Tables
|
Chapter # |
Method of Installation |
Type |
R-value per inch |
Approximate Cost (Contractor installed) |
|
4 |
Vapr and Air Retarders |
Polyethylene Vapor Retarder |
N/A |
4 mil; $0.10 per square foot |
|
Polyethylene Vapor Retarder |
N/A |
6 mil; $0,10 per square foot |
||
|
Asphalt Felt, 15# |
N/A |
$0.10 per square foot |
||
|
Polypropylene Housewrap |
N/A |
$0.18 per square foot |
||
|
7 |
Loose – Fill (Pour or Blown) |
Cellulose |
3.2-3.8 |
$1,81 per cubic foot |
|
Expanded Polystyrene |
4,0 |
$3.20 per cubic foot |
||
|
Fiber glass |
2.2-4.0 |
$1.63 per cubic foot |
||
|
Perlite |
2.7 |
$2.91 per cubic foot |
||
|
Rock Wool |
2.5 -3.1 |
$1.64 per cubic foot |
||
|
Vermiculite |
2.1 -3.0 |
$ 2.91 per cubic foot |
||
|
Sawdust |
2.2 |
N/A |
||
|
Slag Wool |
2.2 -3.0 |
$1.64 per cubic foot |
||
|
8 |
Blankets: Batts or Rolls |
Cotton |
3.0 -4.3 |
|
|
Fiber glass |
3.0-3.8 |
3 1/2" thick. Kraft faced, $0.37 per square foot |
||
|
5 1/2" thick, unfaced., $0.51 per square foot |
||||
|
Rock Wool |
3.0-3.7 |
3 1/2" thick, Kraft faced, $0.40 per square foot |
||
|
Plastic Fiber |
3.8-4.3 |
|||
|
Chapter # |
Method of Installation |
Type |
R-value per Inch |
Approximate Cost (Contractor installed) |
|
9 |
Sprayed-in-Place |
Air Krete |
3,9 |
|
|
BIBS (Blow-in-Blanket System) |
4.0 |
|||
|
DS Fiber Glass |
4.0-4.27 |
|||
|
Wet spray Cellulose |
3.5 – 3.8 |
|||
|
Wet spray Rock Wool |
4.1 |
|||
|
10 |
Foamed-in-Place |
Air Krete |
3.9 |
|
|
Icynene |
3.6-4.0 |
|||
|
Closed Cell Phenolic |
8.0 |
|||
|
Open cell Phenolic |
4.4 |
|||
|
Polyisocyanurate |
5.8- 6.2 |
|||
|
Polyurethane |
5.8 – 6.2 |
|||
|
Open cell Polyurethane |
3.6 – 3.8 |
|||
|
Tripolymer |
4.6 |
|||
|
UFFI |
4.2 |
|||
Figure A.2 Quick reference insulation chart. (R. S. Means Residential Cost Data-1999)
|
Chapter # |
Method of Installation |
Type |
R-value per inch |
Approximate Cost (Contractor installed) |
|
11 |
Rigid Board |
Cellular Glass |
2.63 |
|
|
Expanded Polystyrene (EPS) |
3.6 – 4.4 |
$0.49 per square foot, 1" thick board |
||
|
Extruded Polystyrene (XPS) |
5.0 |
$0.67 per square foot, 1" thick board |
||
|
Polyurethane Foam |
5.6 |
|||
|
Polyisocyanurate Board Foil faced |
7.0 -8.0 |
$0.70 per square foot, 1" thick board |
||
|
Polyisocyanurate Board – Un-faced |
56-6.2 |
|||
|
Fiber glass |
3.5-4.4 |
$0.51 per square foot, 1” thick board |
||
|
Fiberboard Sheathing Blackboard |
2.6 |
|||
|
Phenolic Foam |
8.3 |
|||
|
Cane Fiberboard |
2.5 |
|||
|
Perlite |
2.8 |
$0.61 per square foot, 1" thick board |
||
|
12 |
Radiant Barriersand Reflective Insulation Systems |
Foil faced polyethylene bubbles |
$0.46 per square foot |
|
|
Foil faced cardboard |
||||
|
Foil faced plastic film |
$0.29 per square foot |
|||
EPA’s Recommended Recovered Materials Content Levels
for Building Insulation1
|
Product |
Material |
Postconsumer Content (%) |
Total Recovered Materials Content (%) |
|
Rock Wool |
Slag |
— |
75 |
|
Fiberglass |
Glass Cullet |
— |
20-25 |
|
Cellulose Loose-Fill and Spray-On |
Postconsumer Paper |
75 |
75 |
|
Perlite Composite Board |
Postconsumer Paper |
23 |
23 |
|
Plastic Rigid Foam, Polyisocyanurate/ Polyurethane: |
|||
|
Rigid Foam |
— |
— |
9 |
|
Foam-in-Place |
– |
– |
5 |
|
Glass Fiber Reinforced |
– |
— |
6 |
|
Phenolic Rigid Foam |
— |
– |
5 |
|
Plastic, Non-Woven Batt |
Recovered and/or Postconsumer Plastics |
– |
100 |
|
‘The recommended recovered materials content levels are based on the weight (not volume) of materials in the insulating core only. |
Figure A.4 Material content recovered or diverted from solid waste. (EPA)
Permeability of Materials to Water Vapor (Perms) Material Perms
|
Vapor Retarders
Figure A.5 Permeability of materials to water vapor. |
|
Emissivity of Building Materials
|
Identifying Old Insulation
|
Material |
Description |
R-Value ( |
|
Asbestos |
Mixed with other insulation materials; requires testing |
1 |
|
Fiberglass blanket |
Pink, yellow, or white |
3.2 |
|
Loose-fill cellulose |
Shredded newspaper, gray, "dusty" |
3.5 |
|
Loose-fill fiberglass |
Pink, yellow, or white loose fibrous material |
2.2 |
|
Loose-fill rockwool |
Denser than fiberglass, "wooly", usually grey with black specks (some newer products are usually white) |
2.9 |
|
Perlite |
White or yellow granules |
2.7 |
|
UFFI |
Whitish grey or yellow, very brittle foam |
4 |
|
Vermiculite |
Gray or brown granules |
2.2 |
|
Wood products |
Sawdust, redwood bark, balsa wood |
1 |
Note: R-values are for old insulation only. They take into account settling as well as r-values for old materials that may have changed with new products.
Figure A.7 Identifying old insulation. (Home Energy Magazine)
|
|
||
|
|||
|
|
||
|
|||
|
|
||
|
|
|
||
|
|||
|
|||
|
|||
|
|||
|
|
||
|
|||
|
|||
Ceilings below Floors over 2×4
 |
 |
 |
 |
cntilated unheated crawl spaces, exterior attics basements waits
3
 |
R 38
4 R 38
4 R 38
6 R-38
7 R-30
8 R-30
Figure A.10 Recommended R-values and fuel types. (U. S. Department of Energy)
|
R-value
|
Figure A.11 R-value of common building materials. (Clemson University)
|
R-vaJue
|
Figure A.12 R-value of common building materials. (Clemson University)
AIR SURFACES
|
Type of Surface |
||||
|
Position of |
Direction of |
Non-Reflective Materials |
Reflective Aluminum Coated Paper |
Highly Reflective Foil |
|
Surface |
Heat Flow |
Resistance (R) |
Resistance (R) |
Resistance fR> |
|
STILL AIR Horizontal |
Upward |
0.61 |
1.10 |
1.32 |
|
45° slope |
Upward |
0.62 |
1.14 |
1.37 |
|
Vertical |
Horizontal |
0.68 |
1.35 |
1.70 |
|
45° slope |
Down |
0.76 |
1.67 |
2.22 |
|
Horizontal |
Down |
0.92 |
2.70 |
4.55 |
|
MOVING AIR (any position) 15 mph wind |
Any |
0.17 (winter) |
||
|
7Vi mph wind |
Any |
0.25 (summer) |
– |
– |
AIR SPACES
|
Position of Air Space and Thickness (inches) |
Heat Flow Dir. |
Season |
Types of Surfaces on Opposite Sides |
||
|
Both Surfaces Non-Reflective Materials |
Aluminum Coated Paper/ Non-Reflective Materials |
Foil/ Non-Reflective Materials |
|||
|
Resistance (R) |
Resistance (R) |
Resistance (R) |
|||
|
Horizontal V* |
Up |
W |
0.87 |
1.71 |
2.23 |
|
V* |
S |
0.76 |
1.63 |
2.26 |
|
|
4 |
W |
0.94 |
1.99 |
2.73 |
|
|
4 |
s |
0.80 |
1.87 |
2.75 |
|
|
45° slope 3A |
Up |
w |
0.94 |
2.02 |
2.78 |
|
3Л |
s |
0.81 |
1.90 |
2.81 |
|
|
4 |
w |
0.96 |
2.13 |
3.00 |
|
|
4 |
s |
0.82 |
1.98 |
3.00 |
|
|
Vertical 3A |
Down |
w |
1.01 |
2.36 |
3.48 |
|
3A |
s |
0.84 |
2.10 |
3.28 |
|
|
4 |
w |
1.01 |
2.34 |
3.45 |
|
|
4 |
s |
0.91 |
2.16 |
3.44 |
|
|
45° slope 3Л |
Down |
w |
1.02 |
2.40 |
3.57 |
|
У- |
s |
0.84 |
2.09 |
3.24 |
|
|
4 |
w |
1.08 |
2.75 |
4.41 |
|
|
4 |
s |
0.90 |
2.50 |
4.36 |
|
|
Horizontal 3A |
Down |
w |
1.02 |
2.39 |
3.55 |
|
1У2 |
w |
1.14 |
3.21 |
5.74 |
|
|
4 |
w |
1.23 |
4.02 |
8.94 |
|
|
V* |
s |
0.84 |
2.08 |
3.25 |
|
|
1У2 |
s |
0.93 |
2.76 |
5.24 |
|
|
4 |
s |
0.99 |
3.38 |
8.08 |
Figure A.13 Air R-values. (D. Richard Stroup)
|
Building Port |
Construction Materials |
R-value |
|
Roof/Ceiling |
Outside Air Film |
0.17 |
|
Shingles |
0.44 |
|
|
Building Paper |
0.06 |
|
|
Plywool y2" |
0.62 |
|
|
Attic Air Film |
0.61 |
|
|
Insulation |
19.00 |
|
|
Gypsum Board/ Y2" |
0.45 |
|
|
Inside Air Film |
0.61 |
|
|
Total R-value (Rt) |
21.96 |
|
|
U-value (VRt) |
0.045 |
|
|
Wall |
Outside Air Film |
0.17 |
|
Siding, Wood y2" x 8" Lapped |
0.81 |
|
|
Sheathing, Plywood |
0.62 |
|
|
Insulation |
11.00 |
|
|
Interior Finish Gyp. Bd. y2" |
0.45 |
|
|
Inside Air Film |
0.68 |
|
|
Total R-value (Rt) |
13.73 |
|
|
U-value (VRt) |
0.073 |
|
|
Header Joist |
Outside Air Film |
0,17 |
|
Siding |
0.81 |
|
|
Sheathing |
0.62 |
|
|
Header, Wood t У2 " |
1.88 |
|
|
Insulation |
11.00 |
|
|
Inside Air Film |
0.68 |
|
|
Total R-value (Rt) |
15.16 |
|
|
U-value (VRt) |
0.066 |
|
|
Sill |
Outside Air Film |
0.17 |
|
Siding |
0.81 |
|
|
Sheathing |
0.62 |
|
|
Sill — Wood 5Y2" |
6.88 |
|
|
Inside Air Film |
6.88 |
|
|
Total R-value (Rt) |
9.16 |
|
|
U-value (VRT) |
0.109 |
|
|
Foundation |
Outside Air Film |
0.17 |
|
Cone. Blk 8" |
1.11 |
|
|
I nsulation |
5.00 |
|
|
Interior Finish Gyp. Bd. |
0.32 |
|
|
Inside Air Film |
0.68 |
|
|
Total R-value (Rt) |
7.28 |
|
|
U-value (VRt) |
0.137 |
Figure A.14 Typical R – and U-value calculations. (Harold B. Olin, AIA)
|
SOLAR INTENSITY AND SOLAR HEAT GAIN FACTORS FOR 4Q°N LATITUDE
|
Figure A.16 Solar heat gain factors: sample. {John I. Yellott)
 |
|
|
|
|
|
|
1. Wid|i did l*|* «it:twoik ліііі hi** уїл Лк*і wrap
2 • Patch nps oi teats m ^apoi retaideis before msialiinq ih* пт-гпг finish
3. Pack msiiiatiof tfttc small traces.’roind doors лпгі window throes tc hrip f hr mitt» cold spots (If jsinq faced
ІСйік)‘ЮП (H! f.l Off tfU! fxiny MViter Lfl
tefore filing in small areas)
4. Wrap *v3ter heater with a fiber gl*ss Water Fed’, сі Вігі Леї (Use f Ьиі ylrivs Wdle: Heater lop on ptertrr water rearers roly*]
Figure A.18 Miscellaneous insulation applications. (Owens Corning)
5. їЬй first step r an e*tenor wa I or sound control project is to seal all penetrations n tt«%f walls, such as those Icr c acti cut w re: and outlets, usi »g ar appJ’Cdt on of Owens Comrvq PtnkSeeJ foan sealant Лі y liaoe :lvit a* could lea*. thri*jqh is a place where scund could lee* lh’ їж/ also (Nine Du ivd use – ж; an. щ foam sealants arourd wvtiows and ooors because they might cause tamming or m salignment)
0. motion must be fitted proper у aroifd p’pes, wring, e ectncal bo*es and hear»rg due’s On ihc cirtonor walls the rsuiancn rust always be installed behind the water supply pipes There should be no gaps or spaces between insulation pieces T ч*е rte p arcs where cncrQv wot id be lost І; і the life of the house
7. Instate col down «tBihfteys with fib»-‘ glass bionkct msu аНкя» laid лі and around a built-up tiaresvort Scuttle holes nan be nsulated jv attatfung г so аЬэп d*rectfy to tne board with ar adhesive
8. CauHu iij леї sealing a I penetrations car he p to stop a r mfi tvntnn
Figure A.19 Miscellaneous insulation applications. (Owens Corning)
Vbu shock! wrap at) ducts with insulating blankets At least two riches of msuiaton is des ‘atte If the supplier does nol have the two-mch torl- sacked duct insulation men you can use a com dinahon of V* unlaced (no foil) arc t" foil or vinyl backed duct insulation
|
|
Tape all duct joints and seams before you insulate tne ducts to prevent any air leakage
Cut the insulation long enough to ha we a two – inch overlap of vapor barrier Ybu need this overlap to staple the insulation Place the vapor nerner (foil or viny side) away from the ducts
If your ducts already have some insulation check to see H any moisture has collected m it, If so. it would be best to replace t with new insulator But. if the ok! insulation >s stik m good cone*ton and you need to add more to gel the desired two-inch protection, be sure you make a number of slashes at si і inch intervals through the old foil vapor barrier before you add the new toa-backed insulator
|
|
Pullmensulaton snug, nor hgh; to reduce air pock – els if you puli the insulation tight you w ll reduce its insulating value
After you have wrapped the ducts, tape the edges of the various pieces of insulation with spectal duct tape This toil vapor ba*f«f л H keep moist air from reaching the cool ducts in summer and will protect the insulation f’om moisture damage Mote Remove part of the insulation cover toil and make sure it overlaps whe*e the two ends of insulation join logethe* Then after taping, staple the tape so it won t come loose and seal the boles made from stapling with insulaton tape
Figure A.20 HVAC duct insulation. (Edison Electric Institute)
|
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|
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|
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|
|
Minimum Insulation Thickness for Circulating Hot Water Pipes
(a) Nominal pipe size and insulation thickness. Figure A.23 Insulation thickness for hot-water piping. (1995 Model Energy Code) |
|
|
In addition, you might want to investigate a relatively inexpensive water heater insulation kit. Hot water tanks (except super-insulated tanks) generally are not insulated very well, so an extra layer of protection will keep the heat from being lost through the walls of the tank. sure to read
the instructions on the kit carefully, especially for directions on keeping uncovered any doors, vents or relief valves. This is especially true for gas and oil-fired water heaters—a proper mixture of additional air with combustion or exhaust gases is needed to assist in the safe passage of combustion products to the outside. For instance on gas-fired water heaters, the draft hood on the vent pipe should be kept free of blockage. If your hot water piping runs any long distances and is exposed, you probably are losing expensive heat from your hot water system. You can wrap the pipes with thermal tape and eliminate this wasted energy.
Figure A.24 Water heater insulation. {Edison Electric Institute)
|
Air Leakage |
Joints, penetrations, and all other such openings in the building envelope that are sources of air leakage must be caulked, gasketed, weatherstripped, or otherwise sealed. The maximum leakage rates for manufactured windows and doors are shown on the reverse side. Recessed lights must be type IC rated and installed with no penetrations or installed inside an appropriate airtight assembly with a 0.5-in. clearance from combustible materials and Э-in. clearance from insulation. |
|
Vapor Retarder |
Vapor retarders must be installed cm the warm-in-winter side of all non-vented framed ceilings, walls, and floors. This requirement does not apply to the following locations nor where moisture or its freezing will not damage the materials. • Texas Zones 2-5 • Alabama, Georgia, N. Carolina, Oklahoma, S. Carolina Zones 4-6 • Arkansas, Tennessee Zones 6-7 • Florida, Hawaii, Louisiana, Mississippi All Zones |
|
Materials and Insulation Information |
Materials and equipment must be identified so that compliance can be determined. Manufacturer manuals for all installed heating and cooling equipment and service water heating equipment must be provided. Insulation R-values, glazing and door U-values, and heating and cooling equipment efficiency (if high-efficiency credit is taken) must be clearly marked on the building plans or specifications. |
|
Duct Insulation |
Supply and return ducts for heating and cooling systems located in unconditioned spaces must be insulated to the levels shown on the reverse side of this sheet. Exceptions: Insulation is not required for exhaust air ducts, ducts within HVAC equipment, and when the design temperature difference between the air in the duct and the surrounding air is 15°F or less. |
|
Duct Construction |
Ducts must be sealed using mastic with fibrous backing tape. For fibrous ducts, pressure-sensitive tape may be used. Other sealants may be approved by the building official. Duct tape is not permitted. The HVAC system must provide a means for balancing air and water systems. |
|
Temperature Controls |
Thermostats are required for each separate HVAC system in single-family buildings and each dwelling unit in multifamily buildings (non-dwelling portions of multi family buildings must have one thermostat for each system or zone). Thermostats must have the following ranges: Heating Only 55°F – 75°F Cooling Only 70°F – 85°F Heating and Cooling 55°F – 85°F A manual or automatic means to partially restrict or shut off the heating and/or cooling input to each zone or floor shall be provided for single-family homes and to each room for multifamily buildings. |
|
HVAC Piping Insulation |
HVAC piping in unconditioned spaces conveying fluids at temperatures above 120°F or chilled fluids at less than 55°F must be insulated to the levels shown on the reverse side of this sheet. |
|
Swimming Pools |
All heated swimming pools must have an on/off pool heater switch. Heated pools require a pool cover unless over 20% of the heating energy is from non-depletable sources. All swimming pool pumps must be equipped with a time clock. |
|
Circulating Hot Water |
Circulating hot water systems must have automatic or manual controls and pipes must be insulated to the levels shown on the reverse side of this sheet. |
|
Electric Systems |
Each multi family dwelling unit must be equipped with separate electric meters. |
Figure A.25 1995 Model energy code basic requirements. (1995 Model Energy Code)
Requirement Installed fY/Ш Comments
Pre-Inspection
• Approved Building Plans on Site {104.1)
Foundation Inspection Inspection Date______________ Approved: Yes
• Slab-Edge Insulation (502.2.1.4) ___________________ _______________ Depth:
• Basement Wall Exterior Insulation (502.2.1.6) —————————– ———————– Depth:
• Crawl Space Wall Insulation (502.2.1.5) ___________________ _______________ Depth:
Framing Inspection Inspection Date______________ Approved: Yes
• Floor Insulation (502.2.1.3) ___________________ _______________ _________________
• Glazing and Door Area (502.2.1.1) —————————– ———————– ————————–
• Mass Walls (502.1.2) ___________________ _______________ _________________
• Caulking/Sealing Penetrations (502.4.3) ___________________ _______________ _________________
• Duct Insulation (503.9.1) ___________________ _______________ _________________
• Duct Construction (503.10.2) ___________________ _______________ _________________
• HVAC Piping Insulation (503.11) ___________________ _______________ _________________
• Circulating Hot-Water Piping Insulation (504.7) ___________________ _______________ _________________
Insulation Inspection inspection Date_____________________ Approved: Yes
• Wall Insulation (502.2.1,1) ___________________ _______________ ___________
• Basement Walt Interior Insulation (502.2.1.6) ___________________ _______________ Depth:
• Ceiling Insulation (502.2.1.2) ___________________ _______________ ___________
• Glazing and Door U-Values (502.2.1.1) ___________________ _______________ ___________
• Vapor Retarder (502.1.4) ___________________ _______________ ___________
Final Inspection Inspection Date_____________________ Approved: Yes
• Heating Equipment (102.1)
Make and Model Number ___________________ _______________ _________________
Efficiency (AFUE or HSPF) ___________________ _______________ _________________
– Cooling Equipment (102.1)
Make and Model Number ___________________ _______________ _________________
Efficiency (SEER) ___________________ _______________ _________________
• Multifamiiy Units Separately Metered (505.2) ___________________ _______________ _________________
• Thermostats for Each System (503.8.3) ___________________ _______________ _________________
• Heat Pump Thermostat (503.4.2.3) ___________________ _______________ _________________
• Window and Door Air Leakage (502.4,2) ___________________ _______________ _________________
• Weatherstripping at Doors/Windows (502.4.3) ___________________ _______________ _________________
– Equipment Maintenance Information (102.2) ___________________ _______________ _________________
Figure A.26 MEC field inspection checklist. (1995 Model Energy Code)
Appendix
В
Directory of Manufacturers, Suppliers, and Associations
The information contained within this directory has been obtained from an extensive list of sources during the research for this book. This directory is not intended to be an all-inclusive source; however, the information is presented as a service to the reader and to facilitate further research or education. Every effort has been made to ensure the accuracy of the material. The authors and the publisher will not accept any liability for omissions or errors.
Manufacturer’s Associations
Blow-in-Blanket Contractors Association (ВІВСА)
1051 Kennel Drive Rapid City, SD 57701 800-451-8862 Email: info@bibca. org http://www. bibca. org
Cellulose Insulation Manufacturers Association (СІМА)
136 South Keowee Street Dayton, OH 45402 937-222-2462 Fax: 937-222-5794
Central States Insulation and Abatement Contractors Association
136 South Keowee Street
Dayton, OH 45402
937-222-1024
Fax: 937-222-5794
Eastern States Insulation Contractors Association
2250 Hickory Road, Suite 100
Plymouth Meeting, PA 19462
610-940-4999
Fax: 610-940-4994
EPS Molders Association 2128 Espey Court Suite 4
Crofton, MD 21114 800-607-3772 410-451-8341 Fax: 410-451-8343 Email: bdecampo@aol. com http:/ /www. epsmolders. org/
Home Ventilating Institute 30 West University Drive Arlington Heights, IL 60004 847-394-0150 Fax: 847-253-0088
Institute for Research in Construction
National Research Council of Canada
Ottawa, Ontario, K1A 0R6
613-993-2607
Fax: 613-952-7673
Email: Ire. Client-Services@nrc. ca
Insulating Concrete Form Association 960 Harlem Avenue, Suite 1128 Glenview, IL 60025 847-657-9730 Fax: 847-657-9728
Insulation Contractors Association of America 1321 Oak Street Alexandria, VA 22314 703-739-0356
National Association of Home Builders (NAHB)
1201 15th Street NW Washington, DC 20005 202-822-0200
North American Insulation Manufacturers Association (NAIMA)
44 Canal Center Plaza, Suite 310
Alexandria, VA 22314
703-684-0084
Fax: 703-684-0427
http:/ /www. naima. org
Polyisocyanurate Insulation Manufacturers Association (PIMA)
1331 F Street, NW, Suite 975
Washington, DC 20004
202-628-6558
Fax: 202-628-3856
Email: pima@pima. org
http: / / www. pima. org / contactus. html
Reflective Insulation Manufacturers Association P O. Box 90955 Washington, DC 20090 800-279-4123
Society of the Plastics Industry, Inc.
1801 К Street NW, Suite 600K Washington, DC 20006-1301 202-974-5200 Fax: 202-296-7005
Spray Polyurethane Foam Division 1275 К Street NW Washington, DC 20005 800-523-6154
Southeastern Insulation Contractors Association
101 Pinehurst Drive
Franklin, TN 37064
615-662-2871
Fax: 615-662-2871
Southwest Insulation Contractors Association
P O. Box 570353
Houston, TX 77257
713-977-0909
Fax: 713-781-1321
Structural Insulated Panel Association 3413 A 56th Street NW Gig Harbor, WA 98335 253-858-SIPA (7472)
Fax: 253-858-0272 Email: staff@sips. org http:/ /www. sips. org/
Thermal Insulation Association of Canada 371A Richmond Road, Unit 8 Ottawa, Ontario, Canada K2A 0E7 613-724-4834 Fax: 613-724-4943
Thermal Insulation Manufacturer’s Association 29 Bank Street Stamford, CT 06901 203-224-3930
The Perlite Institute Inc.
88 New Dorp Plaza Staten Island, NY 10306-2994 Tel: 718-351-5723 Fax: 718-351-5725 http:// www. perlite. org /
The Vermiculite Association Whitegate Acre Metheringham Fen Lincoln, LN4 3AL UK +44 1526 323990 Fax: +44 1526 323181 Email: tva@vermiculite. org
Western Insulation Association 669 South 200 East Salt Lake City, UT 84111 801-364-0050
Fax: 801-531-7725
Reference Sources
Conservation and Renewable Energy Inquiry and Referral Service
P O. Box 8900
Silver Spring, MD 20907
800-523-2929
Electric Power Research Institute P O. Box 10412 Palo Alto, CA 94303 415-855-2000
Florida Solar Energy Center State University System of Florida,
300 State Road 401
Cape Canaveral, FL 32920-4099
Institute for Research in Construction
National Research Council of Canada
Ottawa, Ontario, Canada K1A 0R6
613-993-2607
Fax: 613-952-7673
Email: Ire. Client-Services@nrc. ca
NAHB Research Center HomeBase Hotline
400 Prince George’s Boulevard Upper Marlboro, MD 20774-8731 800-638-8556
National Institute of Building Sciences 1201 L Street NW, Suite 400 Washington, DC 20005 202-289-7800 Fax: 202-289-1092
Southface Energy Institute 241 Pine Street Atlanta, GA 30308 404-872-3549 Fax: 404-872-5009 http://www. southface. org
U. S. Department of Commerce National Technical Information Service 5285 Port Royal Road Springfield, VA 22161
U. S. Department of Energy
Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy Clearing House (EREC)
P. O. Box 3048
Merrifield, VA 22116
800-363-3732
Fax: 703-893-0400
U. S. Department of Energy
Office of Scientific and Technical Information (OSTI)
P. O. Box 62
Oak Ridge, TN 37831
423-576-2268
423-576-840
U. S. Department of Energy
National Appropriate Technology Assistance Service P. O. Box 2525 Butte, MT 59702-2525 800-428-2525
U. S. Environmental Protection Agency Atmospheric Pollution Prevention Division APPD
401 M Street, Mail Code 6202J SW Washington, DC 20460 888-STAR-YES
Energy Star fact sheets Builder guides
Model Energy Code
Council of American Building Officials
5203 Leesburg Pike
Falls Church, VA 22041
703-931-4533
ASHRAE Standard 90.2-1993
“Energy-Efficient Design of New Low-Rise Residential Buildings”
American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air-Conditioning Engineers, Inc. 1791 Tullie Circle, NE Atlanta, GA 30329
Manufacturers Air retarders
ASTRO-FOIL Innovative Energy
10653 W. 181st Avenue
Lowell, IN 46356
800-776-3645
219-696-3639
Fax: 800-551-3645
Email: ie@astrofoil. com
http:/ /www. insul. net/common. html
Celotex Corporation One Metro Center 4010 Boy Scout Blvd.
Tampa, FL 33607 813-873-4000 Fax: 813-873-4430
Dryvit Systems House Wrap 1 Energy Way West Warwick, RI 02893 800-556-7752
Du Pont
Tyvek House Wrap Chestnut Run Plaza Laurel Run Wilmington, DE 19808 800-448-9835
Foam Enterprises, Inc.
13630 Watertower Cir.
Dept. AR
Minneapolis, MN 55441-3785 888-900-FOAM (3626)
612-559-9390 Fax: 612-559-0945
Innovative Energy 10653 W. 181st Avenue Lowell, IN 46356-9451 800-776-3645 219-696-3639 Fax: 219-696-5220
Owens Corning World Headquarters One Owens Corning Pky.
Toledo, OH 43659
800-GET-PINK
Fax: 419-248-7506
Email: answers@owenscorning. com
Pactive Corporation
(formerly Amocor, Amofoam, Tenneco)
2100 River Edge Parkway
Suite 175
Atlanta, GA 30328
800-222-7339
678-589-7337
Fax: 678-589-7325
http:/ /www. tennecobuildingprod. com/index. html
W. R. Meadows, Inc.
300 Industrial Drive P O. Box 338
Hampshire, IL 60140-0338 800-342-5976 847-683-4500 Fax: 847-683-4544
Cellulose Insulation Manufacturers Association (СІМА)
136 South Keowee Street
Dayton, OH 45402
937-222-2462
Fax: 937-222-5794
Applegate Insulation Mfg., Inc. 1000 Highview Drive Webberville, MI 48892 800-627-7536 517-521-3545 Fax: 517-521-3597
Central Fiber Corporation 4814 Fiber Lane Wells ville, KS 66092 800-654-6117 785-883-4600 Fax: 785-883-4429
Central Fiber Corporation 1525 Waynesburg Drive, S. E.
(Route 43 South)
Canton, OH 44707 216-452-2630 Fax: 216-452-2644
Energy Control, Inc.
804 W. Mill Street Ossian, IN 46777 219-622-7614 Fax: 219-622-7604 800-451-6429
Email: dbell29499@aol. com
Greenfiber L. L.C. (Greenstone Industries, Inc.)
Corporate Office
6500 Rock Spring Drive
Suite 400
Bethesda, MD 20817
888-592-7684
301-564-5900
Fax: 402-379-2780
West Coast Administration 3264 Villa Lane Napa, CA 94558 707-256-0715 Fax: 707-256-0719
Hamilton Manufacturing, Inc.
901 Russet Street Twin Falls, ID 83301 208-733-9689 Fax: 208-733-9447 Email: info@hmi-mfg. com http.7 /www. hmi-mfg. com
Insul-Tray, Inc.
P. O. Box 3111 Redmond, WA 98073-3111 425-861-0525
International Cellulose Corporation P. O. Box 450006 12315 Robin Blvd.
Houston, TX 77245-0006
800- 444-1252 713-433-6701 Fax: 713-433-2029 Email: Icc@Spray-On. com http:/ /www. spray-on. com
National Fiber 50 Depot Street Belchertown, MA 01007-9619 413-283-8747 Fax: 413-283-2462
Nu-Wool Insulation Co., Inc.
2472 Port Sheldon Street
Jenison, MI 49428
616-669-0100
Fax: 616-669-2370
Email: mjhenderson@Nuwool. com
Redi-Therm Insulation 3061 South 3600 West Salt Lake City, UT 84119
801- 972-6551 Fax: 801-972-6573
Tascon Inc.
P. O. Box 41846 Houston, TX 77241 800-937-0900
Thermocon Inc.
2500 Jackson Street
Monroe, LA 71202
Sales: 800-532-6145
913-383-0909
Fax: 913-383-3345
Plant: 800-854-1907
318-323-1337
Fax: 318-323-1338
http.7 /www. thermocon. com
U. S. Fiber, Inc.
19321 U. S Highway 19 N, Building C Suite 415
Clearwater, FL 33764 813-524-7575 Fax: 813-524-8558
Manufacturing Locations:
Phoenix, AZ 602-254-5585 Tampa, FL 800-666-4824 Ronda, NC 800-992-2468 Delphos, OH 419-692-7015 Portland, OR 503-653-0063
Air-Krete P. O. Box 380
Weedsport, NY 13166-0380 315-834-6609 Email: info@airkrete. com http.7 /www. airkrete. com
Air Krete
Palmer Industries, Inc.
10611 Old Annapolis Road Frederick, MD 21701 301-898-7848
INSULADD Tech Traders, Inc.
307 Holly Road Vero Beach, FL 32963 888-748-5233 Fax: 561-231-5233 Email: info@insuladd. com http.7 /www. insuladd. com
Nationwide Chemical Coating Mfrs., Inc.
6067 17th Street East
Bradenton, FL 34203-5002
800-423-7264
941-753-7500
Fax: 941-753-1773
Email: natchem@compuserve. com
http: / /www. nationwidecoatings. com
Thermal Control Coatings
P. O. Box 250052
Atlanta, GA 30325
404-846-0044
Fax: 404-365-0423
Email: info@thermalcontrol. com
Inno-Therm Products L. L.C.
1633 Shea Road Newton, NC 28658 828-466-1147 Fax: 828-466-1498
Davis Caves Construction, Inc.
Marty and Ruthanne Davis
P. O. Box 69
Armington, IL 61721
309-392-2574
Fax: 309-392-2578
Email: daviscaves@daviscaves. com
The Energy Efficient and Renewable Energy Clearinghouse (EREC) P. O. Box 3048 Merrifield, VA 22116 800-DOE-EREC (363-3732)
Fax: 703-893-0400 Email: doe. erec@nciinc. com
Earth Sheltered Technology, Inc.
Jerry Hickock, President Box 5142
Mankato, MN 56001
800-345-7203
507-345-7203
Fax: 507-345-8302
http:/ /www. earthshelteredtech. com
Rainforest Action Network 221 Pine Street Suite 500 San Francisco, CA 94104 415-398-4404 Fax: 415-398-2732 Email: rainforest@ran. org
Rammed Earth Networks, Inc.
David Easton 101 South Coombs Suite N
Napa, CA 94559
707-224-2532
Fax: 707-258-1878
www. rammedearthworks. com
Rocky Mountain Research Center P. O. Box 4694 Missoula, MT 59806 406-728-5951
Solar Survival Architecture
Michael E. Reynolds, Principal Architect
P. O. Box 1041
Taos, New Mexico 87571
505-751-0462
Fax: 505-751-1005
http:/ /www. earthshipbiotecture. com
Quentin Branch
Rammed Earth Solar Homes, Inc.
1232 E. Linden Street Tucson, Arizona 85719 520-623-6889 Fax: 520-623-3224
Email: Info@RammedEarthHomes. com http:/ /www. rammedearthhomes. com
The American Underground-Construction Association 511 11th Avenue South, Suite 248 Minneapolis, MN 55415 612-339-5403
Acrocrete, Inc.
3009 N. W. 75th Avenue Miami, FL 33122 305-592-5000 800-432-5097 Fax: 305-591-1497
Dryvit Systems, Inc.
One Energy Way
West Warwick, RI 02893
401-822-4100
800-556-7752
Fax: 401-823-8820
Omega Products Corp.
P. O. Box 1889
282 Anita Drive
Orange, CA 92856
714-935-0900
800-600-6634
Fax: 714-935-0800
Parex, Inc.
P. O. Box 189 Redan, GA 30074 770-482-7872 800-537-2739 Fax: 770-482-6878 w w w. parex. com
Pleko Southeast Corp.
915 W. Memorial Boulevard Lakeland, FL 33815 863-683-6726 Fax: 863-683-6728 www. plekoeifs. com
Pleko Systems International, Inc.
P. O. Box 98360
Tacoma, WA 98498-0369
253-472-9637
888-753-5648
Fax: 253-473-5138
Simplex Products (Finestone)
P. O. Box 10
Adrian, MI 49221
517-263-8881
800-545-6555
Fax: 517-265-3752
www. simplex-products, com
Sto Corp.
6175 Riverside Drive, S. E.
Atlanta, GA 30331 404-346-3666 800-221-2397 Fax: 404-346-3119 www. stocorp. com
Tec Specialty Products, Inc.
315 S. Hicks Road Palatine, IL 60067 847-358-9500 800-323-7407 Fax: 847-776-4340
Teifs Wall Systems
220 Burleson Street
San Antonio, TX 78202
210-472-2935
800-358-4785
Fax: 210-472-2946
USG Corporation 125 S. Franklin Street Chicago, IL 60606 800 USG-4YOU 800-874-4968 312-606-4000 Email: usg4you@usg. com http:/ /www. usg. com
North American Insulation Manfacturers Association (NAIMA)
44 Canal Center Plaza, Suite 310
Alexandria, VA 22314
703-684-0084
Fax: 703-684-0427
Ark-Seal Inc., International
2190 So. Klammath Street
Denver, CO 80223
800-525-8992
303-934-7772
Fax: 303-934-5240
Email: arkseal@hotmail. com
Blow-in-Blanket Contractors Association (ВІВСА)
1051 Kennel Drive
Rapid City, SD 57701
800-451-8862
E-mail: info@bibca. org
http.7 /www. bibca. org
CertainTeed Corporation 750 E. Swedesford Road Valley Forge, PA 19482 800-233-8990 800-782-8777
http: II www. certainteed. compro / insulation / http://www. cphome. com
Guardian Fiberglass, Inc.
1000 East North Street Albion, MI 49224 800-748-0035 517-629-6361 Fax: 800-748-0437
Email: fiberglassjwebmaster@guardian. com
Insul Binder Inc.
2190 South Klammath Street
Denver, CO 80223
800-525-8992
303-934-7772
Fax: 303-934-5240
E-mail: arkseal@hotmail. com
Knauf Fiber Glass
One Knauf Drive
Shelbyville, IN 46176
800-825-4434
317-398-4434
Fax: 317-398-3675
Email: gab2@knauffiberglass. com
Johns Manville P. O. Box 5108 Denver, CO 80217 800-654-3103 303-978-2000 Fax: 303-978-3661 http:/ /www. jm. com
Owens Corning
Bill Edmunds
Fiberglas Tower
Toledo, OH 43659
800-438-7465
614-321-7731
Fax: 614-321-5606
ICF
AAB Building System
840 Division Street
Cobourg, Ontario, Canada K9A 4J9
905-373-0004
AFM Corporation R O. Box 246 Excelsior, MN 55331 800-255-0176 Diamond Snap-Form
American ConForm Industries 1820 South Santa Fe Street Santa Ana, CA 92705 800-CONFORM SmartBlock
American Polysteel Forms 5150-F Edith NE Albuquerque, NM 87101 800-9PS-FORM Fax: 505-345-8154
Superior Walls of America, Ltd.
P. O. Box 427
Ephrata, PA 17522-0427
800-452-9255
Airlite Processing Corporation of Florida
3505 65th Street
Vero Beach, FL 32967
561-562-3518
Fax: 561-778-8456
Email: rsmith9179@aol. com
Carolina Perlite Company, Inc.
P O. Box 158 Gold Hill, NC 28071 704-279-2325 Fax: 704-279-8818
Chemrock Corporation 4269 Edgewood Drive Jacksonville, FL 32254 904-355-0096 Fax: 904-356-3030
Chemrock Corporation Buttermilk Lane Thomaston, ME 04861 207-594-8225 Fax: 207-594-8225
Cornerstone Ind. Minerals Corp.
P O. Box 1287 Lakeview, OR 97630 503-947-5755 Fax: 541-947-5770
Eagle-Picher Minerals, Inc.
6110 Plumas Street
Reno, NV 89509
702-824-7600
Fax: 702-824-7694
Email: codym@minerals. epcorp. com
Filter-Media Co.
P. O. Box 19546 Houston, TX 77224-9156 713-780-9000
Harborlite Corporation 1450 Simpson Way Escondido, CA 92029 619-745-5900 Fax: 619-745-6349
Harborlite Corporation 100 Robert Blunt Drive Youngsville, NC 27596
919- 562-0031 Fax: 919-554-0870
Idaho Minerals, LLC P. O. Box 162 Malad City, ID 83252 208-766-4054 Fax: 208-766-4134
Midwest Perlite, Inc.
4280 W. Parkway Boulevard Appleton, WI 54915
920- 731-2671 Fax: 920-731-2600
Nor-Cal Perlite, Inc.
2605 Goodrick Avenue
Richmond, CA 94801
510-232-7337
Fax: 510-232-8127
Email: info@nor-cal-perlite. com
Persolite Products, Inc.
P. O. Box 505 201 South Robertson Florence, CO 81226 303-572-3222 (Denver area) 719-784-6531 (Florence plant) Fax: 719-784-4855
Renaissance Perlite 2100 Line Road Brunswick, GA 31520 912-264-6372 Fax: 912-267-6096
Schundler Company
P. O. Box 513
Metuchen, NJ 08840
732-287-2244
Fax: 732-287-4185
Email: bruce@schundler. com
Silver & Baryte North America 2100 Line Street Brunswick, GA 31520 212-752-1099 Fax: 212-752-1631
Supreme Perlite Company 4600 North Suttle Road Portland, OR 97217-7797 503-286-4333 Fax: 503-286-1068 Email: perlite@europa. com
Therm-O-Rock East, Inc.
P O. Box 429 New Eagle, PA 15067 412-258-3670 Fax: 412-258-2595
Therm-O-Rock West, Inc. 6732 W. Willis Road #5014 Chandler, AZ 85226 520-796-1000 Fax: 520-796-0223 Email: rdobkin@aol. com
USG Corporation 125 South Franklin Chicago, IL 60606-4678 312-606-4000 Fax: 312-606-4093
Whittemore Company, Inc. 30 Glenn Street Lawrence, MA 01843 978-681-8833 Fax: 978-682-3413 Email: whitcol919@aol. com
World Minerals 130 Castilian Drive Santa Barbara, CA 93117 805-562-0260 Fax: 805-562-0299
Icynene Inc.
5805 Whittle Road, Suite 110
Mississauga, Ontario, Canada L4Z 2J1
888-946-7325
905-890-7325
Fax: 905-890-7784
Atlas Roofing Corporation The Triangle Building 1775 The Exchange, Suite 160 Atlanta, GA 30339 770-952-1442
Celotex Corporation 4010 Boy Scout Blvd.
Tampa, FL 33607
800-CELOTEX
813-873-4000
Email: international@celotex. com http://www. celotex. com
Firestone Building Products Company 525 Congressional Blvd.
Carmel, IN 46032-5607 800-428-4442
Hunter Panels 15 Franklin Street Portland, ME 04101 888-746-1114
IKO Industries, Ltd.
1 Yorkdale Road, Suite 602 Toronto, Ontario, Canada M6A 3A1 416-781-5545
Johns Manville 27 Pearl Street Portland, ME 04101 303-978-2000
Rmax, Inc.
3811 Turtle Creek Blvd., Suite 900 Dallas, TX 75219 800-527-0890
AFM Corporation
R-Control Building Systems
P. O. Box 246
24000 W. Highway 7
Excelsior, MN 55331
800-255-0176
612-474-0809
Fax: 612-474-2074
Email: mtobin@r-control. com
Alamo Foam, Inc.
Roy B. Duggan, Jr.
P. O. Box 47107
San Antonio, TX 78265
210-646-8288
Fax: 210-646-7968
Email: roybduggan@yahoo. com
Allied Foam Products, Inc.
1604 Athens Highway
P. O. Box 2861
Gainesville, GA 30501
770-536-7900
Fax: 770-532-8123
Email: jimclark@mindspring. com
www. alliedfoamproducts. com
BASF Corporation
3000 Continental Drive North
Mt. Olive, NJ 07828
973-426-3908
Fax: 973-426-3904
http:// www. basf. com
Cellofoam
581 Sigman Road
P. O. Box 406
Conyers, GA 30012
800-241-3634
Fax: 770-929-3608
Email: cellofoam@mindspring. com
http.7 /www. cellofoam. com
DiversiFoam Products 9091 County Road 50 Rockford, MN 55373 612-477-5854 Fax: 612-477-5863 Email: info@diversifoam. com www. diversifoam. com
Dow Chemical Company Styrofoam Brand Products 2020 Willard H. Dow Center Midland, MI 48674 800-441-4369
Drew Foam Companies 144 Industrial Drive Highway 35 South Monticello, AR 71655 870-367-6245 Fax: 870-367-0785 Email: drewfoam@ccc-cable. net www. dre wfoam. com
Hirsch USA
215 Prospect Park, Suite A Peachtree City, GA 30269
770-632-6484 Fax: 770-632-6485 Email: hirschus@gte. net www. hirsch-gruppe. com
Insulated Building Systems, Inc.
326 McGhee Road
Winchester, VA 22605
540-662-0882
Fax: 540-662-9104
Email: insbldgsys@aol. com
Insulation Technology, Inc.
35 First Street
P. O. Box 578
Bridgewater, MA 02324
508-697-6926
Fax: 508-697-6934
Email: insultec@insultech-eps. com
Knauf USA Polystyrene, Inc. Chris Gattis 2725 Henkle Drive Lebanon, OH 45036 800-221-6923 Fax: 513-932-3506 Email: chris@knauf-eps. com www. knauf-eps. com
Northwest Foam Products, Inc.
2390 Rostron Circle
Twin Falls, ID 83301
800-398-0804
Fax: 208-736-8690
Email: nwfoam@magiclink. com
Perma “R” Products 16916 Highway 8W P O. Box 279 Granada, MS 38902 800-647-6130 Fax: 601-226-8088 Email: tleclair@dixie-net. com www. sipsproducts. com
Plymouth Foam Products 1800 Sunset Drive Plymouth, WI 53073 920-893-0535 or 800-669-1176 Fax: 920-892-4986 Email: ScottR@plymouthfoam. com http://www. plymouthfoam. com
Quad-Lock Building Systems, Inc.
7398 132nd Street
Surrey, British Columbia, Canada V3W 4M7
604-590-3111
Fax: 604-590-8412
Email: info@quadlock. com
www. q uadlock. com
Shelter Enterprises, Inc.
P. O. Box 618
8 Saratoga Street
Cohoes, NY 12047
518-237-4100
Fax: 518-237-0125
Email: sheltertherm@taconic. net
www. shelter-ent. com
StyroChem U. S., Ltd.
11591 Business Highway 287 North
Fort Worth, TX 76179
817-236-8317
Fax: 817-236-7129
Email: mpate@s-chem. com
www. styrochem. com
Pactive Corporation
(formerly Amocor, Amofoam, Tenneco)
2100 RiverEdge Parkway Suite 175 Atlanta, GA 30328 800-241-4402
http:/ /www. tennecobuildingprod. com/index. html
Therma Foam, Inc.
P. O. Box 161128
Fort Worth, TX 76161-1128
817-624-7204
Fax: 817-624-7264
Email: thermafoam@msn. com
American Chemical Technologies 53280 Marina Drive Elkhart, IN 46514 877-452-2104 Fax: 219-264-3698
Email: dmattix@geocelworldwide. com
Arizona Foam and Spray
222 S. Date Street
Mesa, AZ 85211
480-834-8176
Fax: 480-461-6926
Email: whip@azfs. com
http: 11 www. arizonafoam-arithane. com
Burtin Corporation 2550 South Garnsey Santa Ana, CA 92707 714-850-1370 Fax: 714-850-0437
Carlisle Syntec Incorporated
1285 Ritner Highway
Carlisle, PA 17013
717-245-7000
Fax: 717-245-7053
Email: goodman@synteccarlisle. com
http:/ /www. carlislesyntec. com
Convenience Products
866 Horan Drive
Fenton, MO 63026-2416
636-349-5333
Fax: 636-349-5335
Email: memsl@claytoncorp. com
Corbond Corporation
32404 East Frontage Road
Bozeman, MT 59715
406-586-4585
Fax: 406-586-4584
Email: corbond@corbond. com
http:/ /www. corbond. com
Demilec USA, LLC 1122 W. N. Carrier Parkway Grand Prairie, TX 75050 972-647-0561 Fax: 972-660-1006
ERSystems 50 Medina Street P O. Box 56
Loretto, MN 55357-0056
612-479-6680
Fax: 612-479-6691
Email: ersinfo@ersystems. com
http:/ /www. ersystems. com
Far North Urethane 2115 Loose Moose Loop North Pole, AK 99705 907-488-0900
Email: fnu@mosquitonet. com http:/ /www. mosquitonet. com/~fnu
Flexible Products/Premium Polymers Group
2050 N. Broadway
Joilet, IL 60435
800-800-3626
Fax: 815-741-6912
Foam Enterprises, Inc.
13630 Watertower Circle
Minneapolis, MN 55441
888-900-3626
Fax: 612-559-0945
Email: foament@aol. com
http://www. foamenterprises. com
Foam Enterprises, Inc.
Comfort Foam
13630 Watertower Circle
Minneapolis, MN 55441
800-888-3342
Fax: 763-559-9045
Email: info@comfortfoam. com
http: //www. comfortfoam. com
Foam Enterprises, Inc.
1752 Millerwood Drive
New Albany, IN 47150
812-945-0919
Fax: 812-949-0567
Email: l. faith3084@aol. com
http://www. foamenterprises. com
Foam Enterprises, Inc.
2640 East Hale Street Mesa, AZ 85213 602-402-4440 Fax: 602-898-1586
Email: tom_shackelford@foamenterpises. com http.7 /www. foamenterprises. com
Foam Material and Equipment 5125 N. 2nd Street St. Louis, MO 63147 314-231-6712 Fax: 314-231-6448
FOAM-TECH P. O. Box 87
North Thretford, VT 05054 802-333-4333
http.7 /supergreenfoam. com
Gaco Western Inc.
18700 Southcenter Parkway Tukwila, WA 98188 206-575-0450 Email: info@gaco. com http://www. gaco. com
Great Northern Insulation Sealection 500 935 Keyes Drive
Woodstock, Ontario, Canada N4V 1C3
800-265-1914
519-537-5873
Fax: 519-539-7946
http:/ /ww w. gni. on. ca / no frames, html
H. C. Fennell, Inc. dba/Foam-Tech Div. 1 P. O. Box 87 Route 5
N. Thretford, VT 05054
802-333-4333
Fax: 802-333-4364
Email: foamtech@sover. net
http.7 /www. supergreenfoam. com
Hess Polyurethanes, Inc.
40 Enterprise Blvd.
Atlanta, GA 30336
404-699-1960
Fax: 404-699-0036
Email: mhess@hesspoly. com
North Carolina Foam Industries
1515 Carter Street
Mt. Airy, NC 27030
336-789-9161
Fax: 336-787-9586
Email: rogerm@ncfi. net
http:/ /www. ncfi. com
Polycoat Systems Inc.
5 Depot Street Hudson Falls, NY 12839 800-547-4004 Fax: 518-747-5894 Email: info@polycoat, com http.7 /www. polycoat. com
Polycoat Systems, Inc.
5110-H Fulton Industrial Boulevard
Atlanta, GA 30336
800-229-4509
Fax: 404-696-9626
Email: info@polycoat, com
http.7 /www. polycoat. com
Polyfoam Products, Inc.
P. O. Box 1132
2400 Spring Stuebner Road
Spring, TX 77389
281-350-8888
Fax: 281-288-6450
Polythane Systems, Inc.
2400 Spring Stuebner Road Spring, TX 77389 800-221-3626 281-350-9000 Fax: 281-288-6450 Email: tsparkspsi@aol. com http://www. polythane. com
Polythane Systems, Inc.
2119 NW 65th Avenue Bell, FL 32619 407-341-3913 Email: tompsi@aol. com http.7 /www. polythane. com
Polythane Systems, Inc.
7167 Willowood Drive
Cincinnati, OH 45241
513-759-9420
Fax: 513-759-9421
Email: ohiopsi@email. msn. com
http:/ /www. polythane. com
Polythane Systems, Inc.
930 Tahoe Boulevard, #802, Suite 379
Incline Village, NV 89451
775-832-8065
Fax: 775-832-6859
Email: converse@polythane. com
http.7 /www. polythane. com
Polythane Systems, Inc.
1712 Wilshire Blvd.
Wilson, NC 27893 252-237-6900 Fax: 252-237-6960 Email: psinc@cocentral. com http://www. polythane. com
Polythane Systems, Inc.
35 East 30th Street, Suite 7A New York, NY 10016 212-689-4440 Fax: 212-685-9262 Email: psinyc@aol. com http.7 /www. polythane. com
Quantum Coatings, Inc.
12243 Branford Street
Sun Valley, CA 91352
818-896-1101
Fax: 818-897-0180
http.7 /www. quantum. com
Quantum Coatings, Inc.
9200 Latty Avenue
Hazelwood, MO 63042
314-522-3510
Fax: 314-524-6522
Email: bschenke@isofoam. com
Resin Technology Co.
2270 Castle Harbor Place Ontario, Canada 91761 800-729-0795 Fax: 909-923-9617 Email: sellrtc@aol. com http:/ /www. permax. com
Stepan Company
22 West Frontage Road
Northfield, IL 60093
847-446-7500
Fax: 847-441-1466
Email: bbeauchamp@stepan. com
http:/ /www. stepan. com
SWD Urethane Company
222 South Date Street
Mesa, AZ 85201
480-969-8413
Fax: 480-461-6926
Email: whip@swdurethane. com
Technical Roofing Solutions, Inc. 1600 Airport Road Waukesha, WI 53188 414-820-8939 Fax: 410-820-8949 Email: gevance23@aol. com
UCSC
1208 North Grand
Roswell, NM 88201
505-623-9726
Fax: 505-623-1908
Email: ucsc@ucscurethane. com
http.7 /www. ucscurethane. com
UCSC
3010 W. Lincoln Street
Phoenix, AZ 85009
602-269-9711
Fax: 602-269-9115
Email: ucsc@ucscurethane. com
Unique Urethanes, Inc.
906 H. D. Atha Road Monroe, GA 30655 770-207-4534 Fax: 770-207-4535
Universal Coatings, Inc.
1220 E. North Avenues Fresno, CA 93725 559-233-6300 Fax: 559-233-6200 Email: uci@qnis. net
Utah Foam Products, Inc.
3609 South 700 West Salt Lake City, UT 84119 801-269-0600 Fax: 801-269-0620 Email: info@utahfoam. com http.7 /www. utahfoam. com
R+ Heatshield Radiant Barrier
ASTRO-FOIL Innovative Energy
10653 W. 181st Avenue
Lowell, IN 46356
800-776-3645
219-696-3639
Fax: 800-551-3645
Email: ie@astrofoil. com
http: / /www. insul. net/common, html
ChemRex, Inc.
889 Valley Park
Shakopee, MN 55379
800-766-6776
612-496-6001
Fax:612-496-6058
Email: pault@chemrex. com
www. radiancecomfort. com
Florida Solar Energy Center
300 State Road 401
Cape Canaveral, FL 32920-4099
Environmentally Safe Products, Inc.
313 West Golden Lane
New Oxford, PA 17350
800-289-5693
717-624-3581
Fax: 717-624-7089
Email: espinc@low-e. com
Fibrex Insulations, Inc.
561 Scott Road
Sarnia, Ontario, Canada N7T 7L4
800-265-7514
Fax: 800-363-4440
Pactive Corporation
(formerly Amocor, Amofoam, Tenneco)
2100 RiverEdge Parkway, Suite 175
Atlanta, GA 30328
800-227-7339
678-589-7337
Fax: 678-589-7325
http:/ /www. tennecobuildingprod. com/index. html
Simplex Products P. O. Box 10 Adrian, MI 49221 800-345-8881 517-263-8881 Fax: 517-265-3752
Thermal Design, Inc.
P. O. Box 468 Madison, NE 68748 800-255-0776 402-454-6591 Fax: 402-454-2708
Astro-Foil Reflective Insulation
R+ Heatshield Radiant Barrier
ASTRO-FOIL Innovative Energy
10653 W. 181st Avenue
Lowell, IN 46356
800-776-3645
219-696-3639
Fax: 800-551-3645
Email: ie@astrofoil. com
http: / /www. insul. net/common, html
Environmentally Safe Products, Inc. 313 West Golden Ln.
New Oxford, PA 17350
800-289-5693
717-624-3581
Fax: 717-624-7089
Email: espinc@low-e. com
Innovative Insulation, Inc.
6200 W. Pioneer Parkway
Arlington, TX 76013
800-825-0123
817-446-6200
Fax: 817-446-6222
Email: insulation@earthlink. net
Parsec, Inc.
P. O. Box 551477 Dallas, TX 75355-1477 800-527-3454 Fax: 214-553-0983
Ply-Foil, Inc.
P. O. Box Q
Elkhart Lake, WI 53020 800-558-5895
Poly air, Inc.
4525 Frederick Drive Atlanta, GA 30336 1-888-POLYAIR 404-505-8742 404-505-1198
Sailshade
P. O. Box 3935
Westport, Ma 02790
888-600-3858
Fax: 508-677-3160
Email: susan@sailshade. com
Sealed Air Corporation Park 80 East Saddle Brook, NJ 07663 201-791-7600
TechShield
Louisiana-Pacific Corp. Headquarters/Corporate Office 111 S. W. Fifth Avenue Portland, OR 97204 800-648-6893
Email: customer. support@LPCorp. com
Solar Energy Corporation Box 3065
Princeton, NJ 08543-3065 609-883-7700
LO/MIT I and II radiant barrier paints
Solar Shield, Inc.
1264 Old Alpharetta Road Alpharetta, GA 30005 800-654-3645 Fax: 770-343-8093
Solec
129 Walters Avenue Ewing Township, NJ 08638
609- 883-7700 Fax: 609-497-0182
Tenneco Building Products 242 North Thistle Down Kennett Square, PA 19348 800-422-1284, ext. 338
610- 444-6218 Fax: 610-444-6217
American Rockwool 1000 Patty Hamilton Road Nolanville, TX 76559 800-792-3539 (TX)
800-762-9665 (other)
Rock Wool Manufacturing Company
P. O. Box 506
Leeds, AL 35094-0506
205-699-6121
Fax: 205-699-3132
Roxul, Inc.
551 Harrop Drive
Milton, Ontario Canada L9T-3H3
800-265-6878
Fax: 905-878-8077
Sloss Industries Corporation 3500 35th Avenue North Birmingham, AL 35207 205-808-7803 Fax: 205-808-7805
Thermafiber Mineral Wool
3711 W. Mill Street
Wabash, IN 46992
219-563-2111
Fax: 219-563-8979
Email: jshriver@thermafiber. com
Structural Insulated Panel Association 3413 A 56th Street NW Gig Harbor, WA 98335 253-858-SIPA (7472)
Fax: 253-858-0272 Email: staff@sips. org http://www. sips. org/
AFM Corporation R-Control Building Systems Box 246
24000 W. Highway 7 Excelsior, MN 55331 800-255-0176
Apache Products Company Industrial Park P O. Box 160 Union, MS 39365 800-530-7762
FischerSIPS, Inc.
1843 Northwestern Parkway
Louisville, KY 40203
502-778-5577
800-792-7477
Fax: 502-774-5644
Email: markv@fischergrp. com
w w w. fisc her sips, com
Insulspan SIPS Perma “R” Products, Inc. Johnson City, TN 800-251-7532
Winter Panel Corporation RR 5, Box 168B Glen Orne Drive Brattleboro, VT 05301 802-254-3435
Straw
California Straw Building Association (CASBA) 115 Angelita Avenue Pacifica, CA 94044 805-546-4274
http://www. strawbuilding. com
Daniel Smith & Associates, Architects
1107 Virginia Street
Berkeley, CA 94702
510-526-1935
Fax: 510-526-1961
Email: info@dsaarch. com
http:/ /www. dsaarch. com/
Development Center for Appropriate Technology
P O. Box 41144
Tucson, AZ 85717
520-326-1418
Email: strawnet@aol. com
Harvest Built Homes
Nancy Richardson, Executive Director
93 California Street
Ashland OR 97520
541-482-8733
GreenFire Institute
1509 Queen Anne Avenue North, #606
Seattle, WA 98109
206-284-7470
Straw Bale Construction Association (SBCA) Star Route 2, Box 119 Kingston, NM 88042 505-895-5400
Straw Bale Association of Nebraska (SBAN)
c/o Joyce Coppinger
2110 South 33rd Street
Lincoln, NE 68506-6001
800-910-3019.
Straw Bale Association of Texas (SBAT)
P. O. Box 4211 Austin, TX 78763-4211 512-302-6766
The Last Straw HC 66 Box 119 Hillsboro, NM 88042 505-895-5400
Email: thelaststraw@zianet. com www. strawhomes. com
The Staw Bale House
by Althena Swntzell Steen, Bill Steen, and David Bainbridge
Chelsea Green Publishing Company
White River Junction, VT
1994, ISBN: 0-930031-71-7
http:/ /www. powells. com
C. P. Chemical Co., Inc.
Tripolymer Foam
25 Home Street
White Plains, NY 10606
914-428-2517
Fax: 914-428-3630
Email: Info@Tripolymer. com
http:/ /www. tripolymer. com
USA Energy Consultants Tripolymer Foam Central and Southern Ohio 5411 Franklin Street Hilliard, OH 43026 614-529-2440 Fax: 614-529-2445 888-894-1024
Email: info@tripolymer. com
Grace Construction Products 62 Whittemore Avenue Cambridge, MA 02140 617-876-1400 Fax: 617-498-4311 800-354-5414
Owens Corning World Headquarters
One Owens Corning Parkway
Toledo, OH 43659
800-GET-PINK
Fax: 419-248-7506
Email: answers@owenscorning. com
Pactive Corporation
(formerly Amocor, Amofoam, Tenneco)
2100 RiverEdge Parkway, Suite 175 Atlanta, GA 30328 800-241-4402
http: //www. tennecobuildingprod. com / index, html
Reef Industries, Inc.
P O. Box 750250 Houston, TX 77275-0250 800-231-6074
713- 507-4200 Fax: 713-507-4295
Sealflex Industries 2925 College Avenue, B4 Costa Mesa, CA 92626 800-651-2098
714- 708-0850 Fax: 714-708-2711
American Vermiculite Corp. 1000 Cobb Place Blvd.
Bldg. 100, Suite 190 Kennesaw, GA 30144 770-590-7970 Fax: 770-590-0239
Isolatek International
41 Furnace Street
Stanhope, NJ 07874
219-356-2040, ext. 317
Fax: 219-356-2337
Email: junderwood@isolatek. com
Vermiculite Industrial Corp.
731-733 Washington Road
P. O. Box 11999
Pittsburgh, PA 15228-0999
412-344-9900
Fax: 412-344-9909
Email: bognar5@adelphia. net
W. R. Grace & Co.
62 Whittemore Avenue
Cambridge, MA 02140
617-498-4346
Fax: 617-547-7663
Email: eric. m. moeller@grace. com
Appendix
с
Directory of Historical Insulation Products
The information contained within this directory has been obtained from The Thermal Insulation of Buildings, by Paul Dunham Close (New York: Reinhold, 1947). This directory is not intended to be an all-inclusive source; however, the information is presented as a service to the reader and to facilitate further research or education. Every effort has been made to ensure the accuracy of the material. The author and the publisher will not accept any liability for omissions or errors.
|
Trade name |
Manufacturer or distributor |
Description or basic materials |
|
Air-cell-board |
Waldorf Paper Products Co., St. Paul, MN |
Single layer of corrugated board with liner both surfaces |
|
Air-Flo-Board |
Waldorf Paper Products Co., St. Paul, MN |
Double layer of corrugated board with flat paper between and on both surfaces, 3/8" thick |
|
Air-Met |
H. D. Catty Corporation, New York, NY |
Reflective insulation |
|
Airseal Mineral Wool |
Insulation Products, Ltd., Toronto, Ontario, Canada |
Mineral wool |
|
Airtite Corkboard |
Cork Import Company, New York, NY |
Corkboard |
|
Alfol |
Alfol Insulation Co., New York, NY |
Aluminum foil blanket |
|
Ankarboard |
Ankarsviks Angsags A/B, Sundsvall, Sweden |
Wood fiber |
|
Manufacturer or Description or
|
|
Trade name |
Manufacturer or distributor |
Description or basic materials |
|
Celo-Block |
Celotex Corporation, Chicago, IL |
Cold storage insulation made from cane fiber insulating board |
|
Celobric |
Celotex Corporation, Chicago, IL |
Cane fiber insulating board with asphalted surface embedded on one side with mineral granules in brick pattern |
|
Celo-Siding |
Celotex Corporation, Chicago, IL |
Cane fiber insulating board, asphalt-coated, mineral granules embedded on one side |
|
Celotex |
Celotex Corporation, Chicago, IL |
Cane fiber insulating board |
|
Celotex rock wool |
Celotex Corporation, Chicago, IL |
Rock wool, granulated, loose, and batts |
|
Cemesto |
Celotex Corporation, Chicago, IL |
Insulating board between layers of asbestos cement board |
|
Cemex |
Structural Insulation Corp., Quincy, IL |
Excelsior wood fiber and Portland cement |
|
Century |
Keabey & Mattison Co., Ambler, PA |
Rock wool |
|
Colorkote |
Fir-Тех Insulating Board Co., Portland, OR |
Wood fiber insulating board |
|
Columbia |
U. S. Mineral Wool Co., Chicago, IL |
Mineral wool |
|
Corkduc |
Cork Import Company, New York, NY |
Corkboard |
|
Decoblend |
The Flintkote Co., New York, NY |
Wood fiber insulating board |
|
Denesen |
Denesen Company, Minneapolis, MN |
Rock wool products |
|
Domster Board |
Made in Sweden |
Wood fiber insulating board |
|
Donnacona |
Donnacona Paper Co., Donnacona, Quebec, Canada |
Laminated wood fiber insulating board |
|
Dry Zero |
American Hair & Felt Co., Chicago, IL |
Kapoc blanket insulation |
|
Dubble-Seal Sheathing |
Masonite Corporation, Chicago, IL |
Wood fiber insulating board sheathing |
|
Eagle |
Eagle-Picher Sales Co., Cincinnati, OH |
Mineral wool |
|
Ecod Metal Lath |
Reynolds Metal Co., Richmond, VA |
Plaster base of steel reinforcing wire backed with aluminum foil on kraft paper |
|
Ehret Rock Wool Batts |
Ehret Magnesia Mfg. Co., Valley Forge, PA |
Rock wool batts |
|
Trade name |
Manufacturer or distributor |
Description or basic materials |
|
Enso Board |
Enso-Gutzeit Co., Enso, Finland |
Wool fiber insulating board |
|
Feltrok Mineral Wool |
Independent Insulations, Inc., Tacoma, WA |
Mineral wool |
|
Ferrotherm |
American Flange & Mtg. Co., New York, NY |
Reflective insulation, sheet iron with alloy coating |
|
Fesco Board |
F. E. Schundler & Co., Joliet, IL |
Slab insulation, vermiculite with asphalt binder |
|
Fiberglas |
Owens-Corning Fiberglas Corp., Toledo, OH |
Glass wool, batts, blankets, and blowing and pouring wool |
|
Fiberglas AE Board |
Owens-Corning Fiberglas Corp., Toledo, OH |
Slab insulation, compressed glass fibers, asphalt-enclosed |
|
Fiberglass PF Insulation |
Owens-Corning Fiberglas Corp., Toledo, OH |
Slab insulation, compressed glass fibers with binder |
|
Fiberlite |
Insulite Division M. & 0. Paper Co., Minneapolis, MN |
Wood fiber insulating tile |
|
Firkote |
Fir-Tex Insulating Board Co., Portland, OR |
Wood fiber insulating board sheathing |
|
Fir-Tex |
Fir-Tex Insulating Board Co., Portland, OR |
Wood fiber insulating board |
|
Five Point Mineral Wool |
R. Laidlow Lumber Co., Ltd., Toronto, Ont., Canada |
Mineral wool |
|
Flintkote Insulation Board |
The Flintkote Co., New York, NY |
Wood fiber insulating board |
|
Flintkote Insulating Wool |
The Flintkote Co., New York, NY |
Glass wool |
|
Flintlock Sheathing |
The Flintkote Co., New York, NY |
Insulating board sheathing |
|
Foamglas |
Pittsburgh Corning Corp., Pittsburgh, PA |
Cellular glass slab |
|
Gimco |
National Gypsum Co., Buffalo, NY |
Rock wool |
|
Gold Bond Aluminum Foil Insulating Board and Lath |
National Gypsum Co., Buffalo, NY |
Gypsum wallboard and lath with aluminum foil laminated to one surface |
|
Gold Bond Insulating Board |
National Gypsum Co., Buffalo, NY |
Wood fiber insulating board |
|
Gold Bond Sealed Blanket, Batts, and Rock Wool |
National Gypsum Co., Buffalo, NY |
Rock wool |
|
Trade name |
Manufacturer or distributor |
Description or basic materials |
|
Gold Bond Dry Fill Insulation |
National Gypsum Co., Buffalo, NY |
Powdered gypsum fill insulation |
|
Graylite |
Insulite Division of M. & 0. Paper Co., Minneapolis, MN |
Wood fiber insulating board |
|
Gyproc |
Gypsum, Lime & Alabastine, Ltd., Toronto, Ontario, Canada |
Mineral wool |
|
Handcraft |
Wilson & Co., Chicago, IL |
|
|
Hairinsul |
American Hair & Felt Co., Chicago, IL |
Blanket insulation made from cattle hair or hair and jute |
|
Handi-Batts |
National Gypsum Co., Buffalo, NY |
Rock wool batts |
|
Hilite |
United States Gypsum Co., Chicago, IL |
Wood fiber insulating board |
|
Homart Loose Rock Wool and Batts |
Sears-Roebuck & Co., Chicago, IL |
Rock wool |
|
Homart Mineral Fill |
Sears-Roebuck & Co., Chicago, IL |
Vermiculite |
|
Homeguard |
Gamble Stores, Inc., Minneapolis, MN |
Fill insulation made from wood fiber |
|
Infra |
Infra Insulation Co., New York, NY |
Accordion-type aluminum foil |
|
Insl-Cotton |
Taylor Bedding Mfg. Co., Taylor, TX |
Cotton insulating blanket |
|
Ins-Lite |
Insulite Division of M. & 0. Paper Co., Minneapolis, MN |
Wood fiber insulating board |
|
Insulite |
Insulite Division of M. & 0. Paper Co., Minneapolis, MN |
Wood fiber insulating board |
|
Insulroc |
Rock Products Co., Nashville, TN |
Rock wool |
|
Insul-Wool |
Insul-Wood Corporation, Wichita, KS |
Wood fiber insulation |
|
Insulwool |
General Insulating Products Co., Brooklyn, NY |
|
|
Isorel |
Isorel, Paris, France |
Wood fiber insulating board |
|
Ivrykote Building Board (Fir-Tex) |
Fir-Tex Insulating Board Co., Portland, OR |
Wood fiber insulating board |
|
Trade name |
Manufacturer or distributor |
Description or basic materials |
|
J-M Insulating Board |
Johns-Manville Sales Corp., New York, NY |
Wood fiber insulating board |
|
Jiffy Blanket |
Jiffy Mfg. Co., Hillside, NJ |
Blanket insulation consisting of macerated paper between kraft paper |
|
Johns-Manville Rock Wool |
Johns-Manville Sales Corp., New York, NY |
Rock wool |
|
Jointite |
Mundet Cork Co., Brooklyn, NY |
Corkboard |
|
Kimsul |
Kimberly-Clark Corporation, Neenah, WI |
Wood fiber blanket insulation |
|
Kolorfast |
Wood Conversion Co., St. Paul, MN |
Wood fiber insulating board |
|
L-W Insulating Board |
Ljusne-Woxna Co., Ljusne, Sweden |
Wood fiber insulating board |
|
Lockaire |
Plastergon Wallboard Co., Buffalo, NY |
Licorice root insulating board |
|
Lo-K |
Lockport Cotton Batting Co., Lockport, NY |
Cotton insulating blanket |
|
Lok-Joint |
Insulite Division of M. & 0. Paper Co., Minneapolis, MN |
Wood fiber insulating board lath |
|
Maftex |
See Lockaire |
|
|
Maizewood |
Maizewood Insulation Co., Dubuque, IA |
Insulating board made from corn stalks |
|
Masonite |
Masonite Corporation, Chicago, IL |
Wood fiber insulating board |
|
Masterfill |
B. F. Nelson Mfg. Co., Minneapolis, MN |
Vermiculite |
|
Metallation |
Reynolds Metals Co., Richmond, VA |
Aluminum foil reflective insulation |
|
Micafil |
Munn and Steele, Inc., Newark, NJ |
Vermiculite |
|
Mico |
Mineral Insulation Co., Chicago, IL |
Mineral wool |
|
Mineral Wood Board |
Armstrong Cork Company, Lancaster, PA |
Slab insulation made from rock wood with asphalt binder |
|
Mitchell & Smith |
Mitchell & Smith Co., Detroit, MI |
Corkboard |
|
Multicell |
Multicell Sales Corp., Minneapolis, MN |
Blanket insulation consisting of layers of newspapers stiched together |
|
Trade name |
Manufacturer or distributor |
Description or basic materials |
|
Nat Rock |
National Rock Wool Sales, Inc., Lagro, IN |
Rock wool |
|
Natur-Temp |
Barnhardt Mfg. Co., Charlotte, NC |
Cotton insulating blanket |
|
Naturzone |
Wilson & Company, Chicago, IL |
Slab insulation made from hog hair and asphalt |
|
No void |
Cork Import Corp., New York, NY |
Corkboard |
|
No void Mineral Wool Board |
Cork Import Corp., New York, NY |
Slab insulation made from mineral wool |
|
Nu-Wood |
Wood Conversion Company, St. Paul, MN |
Wood fiber insulating board |
|
Ozite All-Hair Building Blanket |
American Hair & Felt Company, Chicago, IL |
Cattle hair insulating blanket |
|
Palmatex |
Palmatex Corporation, Pinellas Park, FL |
Insulating board made from palm fibers |
|
Pal-o-Pak |
Hines Lumber Co., Chicago, IL |
Fill insulation |
|
Partemp |
Firestone Tire & Rubber Co., Akron, OH |
Cotton insulating blanket |
|
Perfection |
Riverton Lime & Stone Co., Riverton, WV |
Rock wool |
|
Poeco |
C. W. Poe Company, Cleveland, OH |
Rock wool |
|
Porete |
Porete Mfg. Company, North Arlington, NJ |
Slab insulation made from wood fiber and Portland cement |
|
Porex Slabs |
Porete Mfg. Company, North Arlington, NJ |
Slab insulation made from wood fiber and Portland cement |
|
Pyrofill |
U. S. Gypsum Company, Chicago, IL |
Powdered gypsum fill insulation |
|
Red Top Batts, Blanket, and Insulating Wood |
U. S. Gypsum Company, Chicago, IL |
Glass wool (see Fiberglas) |
|
Reyn-O-Cell |
Reynolds Metals Company, Richmond, VA |
Cotton blanket insulation |
|
Rock Cork |
Johns-Manville Sales Corporation, New York, NY |
Slab insulation consisting of rock wool with asphalt binder |
|
Rocktex |
Philip Carey Mfg. Company, Cincinnati, OH |
Rock wool |
|
Rubatex |
Virginia Rubatex Division Great Industries, Inc., Bedford, VA |
Slab insulation made from rubber |
|
Trade name |
Manufacturer or distributor |
Description or basic materials |
|
Rocklath, Insulating |
U. S. Gypsum Company, Chicago, IL |
Gypsum lath with aluminum foil laminated to one surface |
|
Ru-Ber-Oid Rock Wool Insulation |
Ruberoid Company, New York, NY |
Rock wool |
|
Salisco |
Salem Lime & Stone Company, Salem, IN |
Rock wool |
|
Satincote |
Insulite Division of M. & 0. Paper Co., Minneapolis, MN |
Wood fiber insulating board |
|
Seal-O-Wool |
U. S. Roofing Company, St. Paul, MN |
Mineral wool |
|
Sheetrock, Insulating |
U. S. Gypsum Company, Chicago, IL |
Gypsum wallboard with aluminum foil laminated to one surface |
|
Silvercote |
Silvercote Products Company, Chicago, IL |
Reflective fabric consisting of sheets coated with oxide composition |
|
Simpson Insulating Board |
Simpson Logging Co., Seattle, WA |
Wood fiber insulating board |
|
K-25 |
Wood Conversion Co., St. Paul, MN |
Made from balsam wool fiber |
|
Sisalation |
Sisalkraft Company, Chicago, IL |
Reflective moisture barrier paper |
|
Smoothcote |
Insulite Division of M. & 0. Paper Co., Minneapolis, MN |
Wood fiber insulating board |
|
Sonotherm |
Sonotherm Mfg. Co. Inc., San Francisco, CA |
Slab insulation made from wood fiber and cement |
|
Sprayo-Flake |
Sprayo-Flake Company, Chicago, IL |
Fibrous flakes projected with anatomized adhesive against surfaces to be insulated |
|
Spun Rock Wool |
Spun Rock Wools, Ltd., Thorold, Ont, Canada |
Rock wool |
|
Sta-Lite Tile |
Wood Conversion Company, St. Paul, MN |
Wood fiber insulating board tile |
|
Standard Cotton Insulation |
Standard Cotton Products Co., Flint, MI |
Cotton insulating blanket |
|
Stonefelt |
Johns-Manville Sales Corp., New York, NY |
Rock wool |
|
Stud-Рак Wool |
United States Mineral Wool Co., Chicago, IL |
Mineral wool |
|
Summit |
Ohio Valley Rock Asphalt Co., Louisville, KY |
Rock wool |
|
Trade name |
Manufacturer or distributor |
Description or basic materials |
|
Super-Felt |
Johns-Manville Sales Corp., New York, NY |
Rock wool |
|
Supertemp Block |
Eagle-Picher Sales Co., Cincinnati, OH |
Mineral wood slab insulation |
|
Temlok |
Armstrong Cork Company, Lancaster, PA |
Wood fiber insulating board |
|
Temseal Insulating Sheathing |
Armstrong Cork Company, Lancaster, PA |
Wood fiber insulating board sheathing |
|
Ten Test |
International Fibre Board, Ltd., Gatineau, Quebec, Canada |
Wood fiber insulating board |
|
Textolite Foam |
General Electric Company, Pittsfield, MA |
Liquid rosin that foams to light, cellular mass many times original volume |
|
Thermax |
Celotex Corporation, Chicago, IL |
Slab insulation made from wood fiber and magnesite cement |
|
Therminsul |
The Therminsul Corporation, Kalamazoo, MI |
Rock wool |
|
Thermofelt |
American Hair & Felt Co., Chicago, IL |
Blanket insulation made from cattle hair and asbestos fiber |
|
Therm-O-Proof |
Therm-O-Proof Ins. Mfg. Co., Chicago, IL |
Mineral wool |
|
Thermotex |
A/В Varjag, Stockholm, Sweden |
Wood fiber insulating board |
|
Tomhave |
Northern Home Improvement Co., Sandstone, MN |
Rock wool |
|
Torex |
Torefors A/B, Tore, Sweden |
Wood fiber insulating board |
|
TYeetex |
Mo and Domsjo Treetex A/B, Ornskolsdvik, Sweden |
Wood fiber insulating board |
|
Union Rock Wool |
Union Rock Wood Corporation, Wabash, IN |
Rock wool |
|
U. S. Royal Insulation Board |
U. S. Rubber Company, Akron, OH |
Slab insulation made from rubber |
|
United States Wool |
United States Mineral Wool Co., Chicago, IL |
Mineral wool |
|
Ward Brand Rock Wool |
Montgomery, Ward & Company, Chicago, IL |
Rock wool |
|
Waukesha |
Waukesha Lime & Stone Co., Waukesha, WI |
Rock wool |
|
Trade name |
Manufacturer or distributor |
Description or basic materials |
|
Weathertie Sheathing |
Johns-Manville Sales Corp., New York, NY |
Wood fiber insulating board sheathing |
|
Weatherwood |
U. S. Gypsum Company, Chicago, IL |
Wood fiber insulating board |
|
Western Rock Wool |
Western Rock Wool Corp., Huntington, IN |
Rock wool |
|
Wyolite |
Wyolite Insulating Products Co., Cleveland, OH |
Vermiculite |
|
Yamaska |
Yamaska Mills, Inc., St. Pierde-Bagot, Quebec, Canada |
Wood fiber insulating board |
|
Zonolite |
Universal Zonolite Insulation Co., Chicago, IL |
Vermiculite |
Index
AAB Blue Maxx, 320-322 Absorptance, 248 ACGIH (American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists’), 98 ACMs (asbestos-containing materials), 353 ADA (airtight dry wall approach), 59 Additives, paint, 289-290 Adobe, 270
Aerogels, 377-381, 383 cost of, 381 history of, 378 properties of, 378-381 R-value of, 380 AHERA (Asbestos Hazard
Emergency Response Act), 362
Air:
convection via, 21-22 dry, 15
exfiltration, air, 47 infiltration, air, 47-48 leakage of, 34, 37 makeup, 68 R-values for, 408 Air barriers, 47 Air conditioning, 6-7 Air films, 23 Air Krete, 191-193
environmental considerations with, 193
Air Krete (Cont): fire resistance of, 193 health considerations with, 193
limitations of, 192-193 properties of, 192 R-value of, 192 and VOC emissions, 193 Air Krete, Inc., 192 Air retarders, 47-48 Airspace, 23
Airtight drywall approach (ADA), 59 Alabama, 66 Alaska, 66 Alcogel, 379 Aluminum, 5, 6 Ambient (sensible) temperature, 35 American Conference of
Governmental Industrial Hygienists (ACGIH), 98 American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM), 24, 70, 82, 85, 97, 99, 120, 158, 192, 254
American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air – Conditioning Engineers (ASHRAE), 16, 42, 43,
63, 412 Amosite, 351 Arab oil embargo, 7
Arizona, 66 Arkansas, 66 Ark-Seal, Inc, 168 Asbestos, 3, 351-364 and asbestosis, 359 contractors, asbestos,
356-357
“Green Book,” 355 health considerations with, 358-360
history of, 352-353 home inspections, 356 homeowner sampling for, 358 identification of, 354-355 litigation involving, 362-363 and lung cancer, 352, 359-360 and mesothelioma, 360 products containing, 353 “Purple Book,” 355 regulation of, 360-362 removal of, 355-358 as thermal insulation, 353-354
in vermiculite, 112 Asbestos Hazard Emergency Response Act (AHERA),
362
Asbestos School Hazard
Abatement Act (ASHAA), 361
Asbestos-containing materials (ACMs), 353 Asbestosis, 359
ASHRAE (see American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air-Conditioning Engineers)
Associations, manufacturers, 423-426
ASTM (see American Society for Testing and Materials) Atrium (courtyard) plan, 273 Attics, 57-58
Blow-In-Blanket System for, 169
Attics (Cont):
fiberglass batts/rolls in, 124-125, 138-140 fiberglass in, 102-104 loose-fill insulation in, 77, 79, 102-104
phase-change insulation in, 388-390
radiant barriers in, 252-256
R-values for, 57
vapor retarders in, 44, 45
Balsa batt, 5 Balsa wool, 5
Banner Rock Products Co., 4 Barrier-type method, 230-231 Basements:
fiberglass batts/rolls in, 127, 143-144
vapor retarders with, 46-47 walls, 54-56, 143-144 BASF Corporation, 214 Batts, 120 Beadboard, 210, 296 Benzene, 214, 219 BIBS (see Blow-In Blanket System)
Blanket insulation, 4, 27, 119 (see also Fiberglass batts and rolls)
Block walls, as vapor retarders, 47
Blow-In-Blanket Dry System, 169-170
Blow-In-Blanket System
(BIBS), 104, 157, 168-173 attics, 169
cathedral ceilings, 169 fire resistance of, 171 floors, 169
installation of, 171, 173 limitations of, 171 properties of, 170 R-value of, 170, 172
Blowing/foaming agent, 185 Blue board, 296 Board/paper products, 260-261 BOCA {see Building Officials and Code Administrators International, Inc.; Building Officials Code Administration)
Boron, 163
British thermal unit (Btu), 14 Building envelope: envelope compliance approach, 68 evolution of, 33-34 Building Officials and Code Administrators International, Inc. (BOCA), 64-65
Building Officials Code
Administration (BOCA), 323 Bulk moisture, 34
С. P. Chemical Company, Inc., 197
CABO (Council of American Building Officials), 65 Cabot, Samuel, 4 Cabot’s Quilt, 4 CAF (compressed agricultural fiber), 229 California, 66, 82 California Bureau of Home Furnishings and Thermal Insulation (CBHF), 86 Canadian Mortgage Housing Corporation (CMHC), 368 Capehart housing, 7 Capillary action, 34 Carcinogens:
expanded polystyrene, 214 extruded polystyrene, 219 fiberglass, 98, 128, 176 mineral wool, 146 urea formaldehyde foam insulation, 368, 370
Carcinogens (Cont.): wet spray rock wool/slag wool, 179-180 Cathedral ceilings, 57, 215 Blow-In-Blanket System with, 169
in earth homes, 275 fiberglass batts/rolls, 124, 140 and vapor retarders, 44-45 Cavity foundation materials, 55-56
CBHF (California Bureau of Home Furnishings and Thermal Insulation), 86 Ceilings, 57
cellulose loose-fill insulation with, 90-91
fiberglass batts/rolls, 124-125 loose-fill insulation for, 79 {see also Cathedral ceilings) Cellular glass, 228 Cellular plastic, 185 Cellulose, 7, 8, 76-78 dense-pack, 83 loose-fill insulation, 80-96 application procedures for, 90-91
coverage requirements for, 90
environmental
considerations with, 84 fire resistance of, 85-87 health considerations with, 83-84
installation of, 87, 95-96 limitations of, 83 preliminary inspection for, 87-88
preparation for, 88-90 properties of, 82 R-value of, 83 sidewalls, 91-93 standards for, 81-82 vapor retarders with, 93-94 ventilation guidelines for, 95
Cellulose, loose-fill insulation (‘Cont.): weight of, 83
wet spray cellulose, 157-168 environmental
considerations with, 163
fire resistance of, 163 health considerations with, 162
installation of, 163-168 limitations of, 161 properties of, 158 R-value of, 161, 162 standards for, 158-161 Cellulose Insulation
Manufacturers Association (СІМА), 43-44, 81, 85-87, 163
Celotex Company, 6 Cenesto, 6
Center-of-cavity R-value (Rcc), 28
Ceramic coatings, 287-289 fire resistance of, 289 installation standards with, 289
limitations of, 288-289 properties of, 288 R-values of, 288 CertainTeed, 130 CFCs (see Chlorofluorocarbons) CFU (contoured foam underlayment), 229 “Chimney effect,” 301 Chimneys, 3, 103 Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), 186-187
Chromatropic acid test, 371 Chrysotile, 351
СІМА (see Cellulose Insulation Manufacturers Association) Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990, 187
Clear-wall R-value (Rcw), 28
Climate:
and vapor retarders, 41-42 zone, climate, 67 Closed-cell foams, 185, 186 CMHC (Canadian Mortgage Housing Corporation),
368
Coatings, 40, 287-290 ceramic, 287-290 fire resistance of, 289 installation standards with, 289
limitations of, 288-289 properties of, 288 R-values of, 288 paint, 289-290 Cob, 269-270
Code of Federal Regulations, 71 Codes and standards, 63-71 American Society for Testing and Materials, 70 ASHRAE standards, 63-64 cellulose, wet spray, 158-161 cellulose loose-fill insulation, 81-82
Federal Trade Commission, 69 Home Energy Rating Systems Council, 69 Icynene, 191 IECC/MEC, 64-68 loose-fill insulation, 81-82 reflective insulation, 261-262 Cold climates, 41 Colorado, 66 Comfort, thermal, 13-17 and ASHRAE Standard 55, 16 definition of, 13 and humidity, 15-16 and thermoregulation, 13-15 Comfort envelope (ASHRAE), 412
Composite board insulation,
228- 229
Compressed agricultural fiber (CAF), 229
Compressed straw panels,
229- 230
Concrete block, 55, 56 Concrete slabs, vapor retarders with, 45
Condensation, 36-38 Conduction, 22, 247 ConForm, 320 Connecticut, 66 Construction water, 37 Consumer Product Safety Act, 71
Consumer Product Safety Commission (CPSC), 71,
81, 82, 85, 90, 128, 176, 368 Continuous air/vapor retarder, 43
Contoured foam underlayment (CFU), 229
Convection, 21-22, 247 loops, convection, 77 loose-fill insulation, 77 Copper, 6 Cork, 3, 112
Corning Glass Company, 4-5 Cost(s):
of aerogels, 381 of foundations, 54 of gas-filled panels, 386 of radiant barriers, 257-258 of spray polyurethane foam, 196
of superinsulation, 60 of vacuum insulation panels, 384
Cotton insulation, 148-149 availability of, 149 fire resistance of, 149 properties of, 148-149 R-value of, 149 Council of American Building Officials (CABO), 65 Courtyard (atrium) plan, 273 CPSC (see Consumer Product Safety Commission)
Crawl spaces:
fiberglass batts/rolls, 125-127, 142-143
vapor retarders with, 45 Crocidolite, 351
Damp proofing, 55 Damp-spray cellulose, 157 Degree-days, 41 Delaware, 66 Dense-packing, 83 Density, and R-value, 26-27 Design densities, 27 Dew point, 36, 43 Dewar principal, 381-382 Dew-point temperature, 35 Dimensionally stable fiberglass (DS), 168, 173-177 Discontinuous air/vapor retarder, 43
DOE (see U. S. Department of Energy)
“Double blow” method, 105 Dow Chemical Company, 7,
215
Dry air, 15
Dry-bulb temperature, 34 DS (see Dimensionally stable fiberglass)
DuPont, 186 Dust, 15
Earth, 3, 269-283 homes, earth, 271-280 advantages of, 272-273 cathedral ceilings, 275 design of, 273-277 fire resistance of, 279-280 installation standards with, 279
limitations of, 277-279 properties of, 273-277 Pneumatically Impacted Stabilized Earth, 282 rammed, 280-282
Earth (Cont):
ventilation requirements of, 271
Earthquakes, 302 Earth-sheltered housing, 271-272
Earthships, 270, 282-283 Eel grass, 4
Egyptians, ancient, 3, 4 EIFS (see Exterior insulation and finish systems)
EIFS Industry Members Association (EIMA), 238 Electromagnetic spectrum, 245-246
Electromagnetic waves, 22 Elevational plan, 273-274 Embodied energy, 85, 163 Emissivity, 22-23, 249, 401 Emittance, 22-23, 249 Encapsulated batts, 129 Energy Conservation in New Building Design (ASHRAE Standard 90-1975), 63 Energy crisis, 7 Energy Policy Act of 1992 (EPACT), 8, 64-65 Energy-Efficient Design of New Low-Rise Residential Buildings (ASHRAE Standard 90.2), 64 Envelope compliance approach, 68
Environmental issues:
Air Krete, 193 cellulose, 84, 163 expanded polystyrene, 214 extruded polystyrene, 219 fiberglass, 99, 130, 174-177 foamed-in-place insulation, 186-187
gas-filled panels, 386 mineral wool, 109-110, 147 polyisocyanurate, 225 straw bale, 344
Environmental issues (Cont.): structural insulated panels, 305-307
tripolymer foam, 200 wet spray cellulose, 163 Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), 112, 130, 193, 208, 297, 399 EPACT (see Energy Policy Act of 1992)
EPA/DOE Energy Star
Program, 297
EPS (see Expanded polystyrene) Evacuated panels, 382 Exfiltration, air, 47 Expanded polystyrene (EPS), 209-214, 210, 296 beads, expanded polystyrene, 112
as carcinogen, 214 environmental considerations with, 214 limitations of, 214 properties of, 210-212 R-value of, 212-214 Exterior insulation and finish systems (EIFS), 210,
230- 238
installation of, 238 legal history, 232, 235, 236 limitations of, 237-238 properties of, 230-236 Extruded expanded polystyrene (XEPS), 209
Extruded polystyrene (XPS), 7, 209, 215-222, 296 as carcinogen, 219 with cathedral ceilings, 215 cold spots/streaking with, 221 environmental considerations with, 219
fire resistance of, 219 ghosting with, 221 installation of, 219-220 limitations of, 219
Extruded polystyrene (XPS)
(‘Cont.):
properties of, 215-218 R-value of, 219 Eye irritation: fiberglass, 98-99, 177 mineral wool, 109, 146 wet spray rock wool/slag wool, 180
Federal Energy Management Improvement Act (FEMIA), 8
Federal Housing Administration (FHA), 65
Federal Trade Commission (FTC), 24, 69 FEMIA (Federal Energy
Management Improvement Act), 8
FHA (Federal Housing Administration), 65 Fiber wallboards, 364 Fiberboard, 226-227 Fiberglass, 4-5, 76-79, 82, 96-105, 383
dimensionally stable, 173-177 environmental
considerations with, 174-177
eye irritation, 177 fire resistance of, 174 health considerations of, 176-177
installation of, 174-176 limitations of, 173-174 properties of, 173 respiratory irritation, 176 skin irritation, 177 environmental considerations with, 99, 130 fire resistance of, 99, 131 health considerations with, 97-99
properties of, 96-97
Fiberglass (Cont.):
R-value of, 97 in sidewalls, 104, 105 standards/practices for installation of, 99-105 in unfloored attics, 102-104 (see also Fiberglass batts and rolls)
Fiberglass batts and rolls, 119-144
in attics/ceilings, 124-125 in basements, 127 as carcinogen, 128 in cathedral ceilings, 124 characteristics of, 122 cotton, 148-149 in floors/crawl spaces, 125-127
formaldehyde, 129 health considerations with, 127-130
installation of, 132-144 attic rooms, 139-140 basement walls, 143-144 cantilevered overhang areas, 142
cathedral ceilings, 140 ceiling joists below attic, 138-139
face stapling, 135 floors, 140-142 guidelines, 132-134 heated crawl spaces, 142-143
inset stapling, 134-135 pressure fit, 136 sidewalls, 136-138 stapling, 134-136 unfaced insulation, 136 with vapor barriers, 142 with vapor retarders, 143 wire insulation hangers, 141-142
limitations of, 127 plastic fiber insulation, 148
Fiberglass batts and rolls (‘Cont.):
properties of, 120-122 rock and slag wool, 144-147 R-value of, 122-124 in sidewalls, 124 sizes, 120
vapor barriers with, 121, 142 as vapor retarder, 131 wire insulation hangers, 141-142 “Fiberizing,” 83 Fibrofelt, 5 Films, surface, 23 Fire resistance:
Air Krete, 193
Blow-In-Blanket System, 171 cellulose, 85-87, 163 ceramic coatings, 289 cotton insulation, 149 earth homes, 279-280 extruded polystyrene, 219 fiberglass, 99, 131, 174 Icynene, 191
mineral wool, 109-110, 147 polyisocyanurate, 225-226 radiant barriers, 257 spray polyurethane foam,
195
straw bale, 344-345 structural insulated panels, 301-302
tripolymer foam, 200 wet spray cellulose, 163 wet spray rock wool/slag wool, 180 Fireplaces, 3, 103 Flax, 5 Flaxlinum, 5 Floors, 57
Blow-In-Blanket System, 169 fiberglass batts/rolls, 125-127, 140-142
vapor retarders in, 45 Florida, 66
Florida Solar Energy Center (FSEC), 303 Fluffing, 79 Flywheel effect, 290 Foam insulation, and convection, 22 Foamboard, 215 Foamed-in-place insulation, 185-201
Air Krete, 191-193
environmental
considerations with, 193
fire resistance of, 193 health considerations with, 193
limitations of, 192-193 properties of, 192 R-value of, 192 CFCs in, 186-188 environmental considerations with, 186-187 health considerations with, 186
Icynene, 188-191 fire resistance of, 191 health considerations with, 191
limitations of, 190-191 properties of, 188, 190 R-value, 190 standards for, 191 installation of, 186 open – vs. closed-cell, 185-186 phenolic foam, 197 spray polyurethane foam, 193-196 cost of, 196 fire resistance of, 195 limitations of, 195 properties of, 194 R-value of, 194 tripolymer foam, 197-210 environmental considerations with, 200
Foamed-in-place insulation, tripolymer foam (Cont.): fire resistance of, 200 installation of, 200-201 limitations of, 198-200 properties of, 198 R-value of, 198 water-blown polyurethane, 196-197
Foam-Tech, Inc., 196 Foil-faced polyethylene insulation, 258-259 Forced convection, 21-22 Formaldehyde, 129, 366-371. (see also Urea formaldehyde foam insulation) Foundations, 54-56 Franklin, Benjamin, 352 Free convection, 22 Freon, 186-187 Frigidaire, 6
FSEC (Florida Solar Energy Center), 303 FTC (see Federal Trade Commission)
Gamma rays, 246 Gaps, 54, 79
Gas-filled panels (GFPs), 385-387
availability of, 386-387 cost of, 386
installation of, 385-386 limitations of, 386 properties of, 385 General Electric, 6 General Motors, 6, 186 Geoform, 209 Georgia, 66
GFPs (see Gas-filled panels) Glass, cellular, 228 Granulated cork, 112 Greeks, ancient, 3 Green board, 296 “Green Book,” 355
Guarded hot box, 24 Guardian Fiberglass, Inc., 173
Habitat for Humanity, 149 Hall, С. C., 4 Hawaii, 4, 66 HCFCs (see
Hydrochlorofluorocarbons) Health issues:
Air Krete, 193 asbestos, 358-360 cellulose, 83-84, 162 fiberglass, 97-99, 127-130, 176-177
foamed-in-place insulation, 186
Icynene, 191 loose-fill insulation, 80 mineral wool, 107-109, 146-147
urea formaldehyde foam insulation, 370-371 wet spray cellulose, 162 wet spray rock wool/slag wool, 179-180
Heat:
flow, heat, 23-28
and density of material, 26-27
rate of (U-value), 23-24 resistance to (R-value),
24- 28
and temperature, 25 and thickness of material,
25- 26
in whole-wall systems, 28 gain, heat, 411 loss, heat foundations, 54 slab-on-grade foundations, 56
metabolic, 13-14 transfer, heat, 21-23, 247 causes of resistance to, 23 by conduction, 22
Heat: transfer, heat (Cont.): by convection, 21-22 by radiation, 22-23 resistance to, 23 Heating, ventilation, and air conditioning (HVAC), 277 duct insulation, 415-416 piping, 416
HERS (home energy rating systems), 69
HERSC (Home Energy Rating Systems Council), 69 HFCs (hydrofluorocarbons), 196 Historical insulation products, 3-8, 351-371 asbestos, 351-364 health considerations with, 358-360
history of, 352-353 identification of, 354-355 litigation involving, 362-363
products containing, 353 regulation of, 360-362 removal of, 355-358 thermal insulation,
353-354 list of, 463-472 structural insulating board, 364-366
installation of, 366 properties of, 365-366 urea formaldehyde foam insulation, 366-371 health considerations with, 370-371
identification of, 369 installation of, 369-370 vapor retarders, 38-39 Home Energy Rating Systems Council (HERSC), 69 Home energy rating systems (HERS), 69
Hot water, piping for, 417 Housewrap, 48
HUD {see U. S. Department of Housing and Urban Development)
Humidity, 15-16, 34-35, 42 HVAC {see Heating, ventilation, and air conditioning) Hydrochlorofluorocarbons
(HCFCs), 186-187, 195, 208 Hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs), 196
IARC {see International Agency for Research on Cancer) IBC {see International Building Code)
IC (insulation contact) rating, 139
ICBO {see International Conference of Building Officials)
ICC (International Code Council), 65 Iceland, 3
ICFs {see Insulating concrete forms)
Icynene:
fire resistance of, 191 health considerations with, 191
limitations of, 190-191 properties of, 188, 190 R-value of, 190 standards for, 191 and vapor retarders, 190 Icynene, Inc., 188 Idaho, 66
IECC {see International Energy Conservation Code)
Illinois, 66
Inch-pound (I-P) system, 24 Indiana, 66 Infiltration, air, 47-48 Infrared radiation, 245-246 Inside surface films, 23 Inspections: asbestos, 356
Inspections (Cont. ): cellulose, 87-88 MEC field inspection checklist, 420 Installation: of air retarders, 48 Blow-In-Blanket System,
171, 173
cellulose, 87, 95-96, 163-168 ceramic coatings, 289 earth homes, 279 exterior insulation and finish systems, 238 extruded polystyrene, 219-220
fiberglass, 99-105, 174-176 fiberglass batts/rolls, 132-144 foamed-in-place insulation, 186
gas-filled panels, 385-386 insulating concrete formwork, 323-328
mineral wool, 109-110, 147 radiant barriers, 251-256 straw bale, 334-342 structural insulated panels, 307-316
structural insulating board, 366
tripolymer foam, 200-201 urea formaldehyde foam insulation, 369-370 vacuum insulation panels, 384
of vapor retarders, 46-47 wet spray cellulose, 163-168 wet spray rock wool/slag wool, 180-181
INSULADD, 289-290 Insulating board, 364 Insulating concrete forms (ICFs), 215, 293, 316-328 installation of, 323-328 properties of, 317-321 R-value of, 321-323
Insulation contact rating (see IC rating)
Insulcot, 149 Insulite, 5-6
Integrated insulation systems, 293-345
insulating concrete formwork, 316-328
installation of, 323-328 properties of, 317-321 R-value of, 321-323 straw bale, 326-345 availability of, 345 environmental
considerations with, 344
fire resistance of, 344-345 history of, 328-329 in-fill system, 339-341 installation of, 334-342 limitations of, 343-344 mortar bale system, 341-342 Nebraska style of, 334-339 properties of, 329, 331-332 R-value of, 332-333 selection guidelines for, 333-334
structural considerations/ guidelines for, 342 structural insulated panels, 293-317
connections/joints, 310-313 electrical/plumbing, 313, 315-317 environmental
considerations with, 305-307
fire resistance of, 301-302 installation of, 307-316 manufacture of, 299 material properties of, 299-301
openings, 313-314 properties of, 294-301 R-value of, 302-305
Interior fiberboard, 364 Interior radiation control coating (IRCC), 262
International Agency for
Research on Cancer (IARC), 108, 109, 128, 146, 176 International Building Code (IBC), 43-44, 65-69, 86 International Code Council (ICC), 65
International Conference of Building Officials (ICBO), 64-65, 323 International Energy
Conservation Code (IECC), 25, 43, 64-68
International Residential Code (IRC), 43, 66, 86 Iowa, 66
IP (inch-pound) system, 24 IRC (see International Residential Code)
IRCC (interior radiation control coating), 262 Iso board, 222
Johns Manville Co., 4, 130
Kansas, 66 Kentucky, 66 Kincaid Act of 1904, 5 Kinetic energy, 22 Knee walls, 58, 104 Kool-Ply, 260
Ladder-type roof plate, 338 Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory (LLNL), 380 Layers, material, 23 Lea, Dan, 85
Lead particles (in mineral wool), 146 Lights, recessed, 45 LLNL (Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory), 380
Load-bearing construction,
334
Location of insulation, 41-46, 53-54. (see also specific locations, e. g.: Attics) Loose-fill insulation, 75-112 in attics, 77, 79, 102-104 cellulose, 80-96
application procedures for, 90-95
and building codes, 95-96 coverage requirements with, 90 dense-pack, 83 environmental
considerations with, 84-85
fire resistance of, 85-87 guidelines for, 87 health considerations with, 83-84
limitations of, 83 preliminary inspection for, 87-88
preparation for, 88-90 properties of, 82 R-value of, 83 standards for, 81-82 weight considerations with, 83
characteristics of, 75 convective heat loss with, 77 cork, 112
expanded polystyrene beads, 112
fiberglass, 96-105
environmental
considerations with, 99 fire resistance of, 99 health considerations with, 97-99
limitations of, 97 properties of, 96-97 R-value of, 97 in sidewalls, 104, 105
Loose-fill insulation, fiberglass (‘Cont.):
standards/practices for installation of, 99-105 in unfloored attics, 102-104 fluffing of, 79
health considerations with, 80 mineral wool, 105-110 environmental considerations with, 109-110 fire resistance of, 109-110 health considerations with, 107-109
limitations of, 107 properties of, 107 R-value of, 107 standards/practices for
installation of, 109-110 weight of, 107
moisture resistance of, 77-79 Perlite, 110-111 safety guidelines for, 79 settling of, 77 shavings, 112 Vermiculite, 111-112 voids/gaps in, 79 weight of, 76-77 Louisiana, 66 Low-E coatings, 262-263 Low-E glass, 263 Lung cancer, 352, 359-360
Mac Millan Research, Ltd., 199-200 Maine, 66 Makeup air, 68 Man-made mineral fibers (MMMFs), 96, 106, 119,
168, 177
Man-made vitreous fibers (MMVFs), 96, 106, 119, 144-145, 168, 177, 227 Manufacturers, 428-460 of air retarders, 428-430 associations of (list), 423-426
Manufacturers (Cont.): of cellulose, 430-433 of cementitious foam insulation, 433 of coatings, 433-434 of earth insulation products, 434-435
of EIFS, 436-437 of fiberglass, 437-438 of ICF, 438-439 of perlite, 439-442 of poly icy nene, 442 of polyisocyanurate,
442-443
of polystyrene, 443-446 of polyurethane, 446-452 of radiant barriers, 452-454 of reflective insulation, 454-455
of rock wool, 456 ofSIPs, 456-457 of straw insulation products, 457-458
of tripolymer foam, 458-459 of vapor retarders, 459 of vermiculite, 460 Manufacturer’s Safety Data Sheet (MSDS), 128, 147 Maryland, 66 Mass insulations, 22 Massachusetts, 66 Material layers, 23 MEC (see Model Energy Code) MECcheck Manual, 68 MECcheck Prescriptive Packages, 68 MECcheck Software, 68 Membranes, 40 MEPS (molded expanded polystyrene), 210 Mesothelioma, 360 Metabolic heat, 13-14 Michigan, 66
Milam Building (San Antonio, TX), 6
Mineral fiber, 4, 227, 383 properties of, 227 R-value of, 227 Mineral powder, 383 Mineral wool, 4, 76-79, 105-110 availability of, 147 as batt product, 144-147 as carcinogen, 146 environmental considerations with, 109-110, 147 fire resistance of, 109-110, 147
health considerations with, 107-109, 146-147 installation of, 147 limitations of, 107 properties of, 107, 146 R-value of, 107 standards/practices for
installation of, 109-110 weight of, 107 (see also Rock wool; Slag wool; Wet spray rock wool/slag wool) Minnesota, 55, 66, 82 Mississippi, 66 Missouri, 66 MMMFs (see Man-made mineral fibers)
MMVFs (see Man-made
vitreous fibers)
Model Code for Energy Conservation, 64 Model Energy Code (MEC), 25, 64-68
basic requirements, 419 field inspection checklist, 420 Moisture:
loose-fill insulation, 77-79 migration of, 34, 37 problems with, 36-38 Molded expanded polystyrene (MEPS), 210 Montana, 66
Montreal Protocol, 187, 195
MSDS (see Manufacturer’s Safety Data Sheet)
Mud brick, 270
NAHB (see National Association of Homebuilders)
NAIM A (see North American Insulation Manufacturers Association)
National Association of Homebuilders (NAHB),
170, 194
National Building Code, 65 National Conference of States on Building Codes and Standards (NCSBCS), 64-65
National Institute of
Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH), 80, 180 National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST),
131
National Research Council of Canada (NRCC), 163, 235 National Toxicology Program (NTP), 128, 176 NCSBCS (see National
Conference of States on Building Codes and Standards)
Nebraska, 5, 66 Nevada, 66 New Hampshire, 66 New Jersey, 66 New Mexico, 66 New York, 66 Newspapers, 83, 85 NIOSH (see National Institute of Occupational Safety and Health)
NIST (National Institute of Standards and Technology), 131
North American Insulation Manufacturers Association (NAIMA), 43, 87, 99, 100, 102, 105, 109-110, 147, 251 North Carolina, 66 North Dakota, 66 Norway, 3
NRCC (see National Research Council of Canada)
NTP (see National Toxicology Program)
Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA), 98, 101-102, 109, 128, 132, 147, 174, 362 ODS (ozone-depleting substances), 187 Ohio, 66 Oklahoma, 66
Old insulation, identification of, 402
Older structures, 33 Open-cell foams, 185-186 Open-celled foams, 383 Oregon, 66
Oriented strandboard (OSB), 260, 295, 306
OSHA (see Occupational Safety and Health Administration) Outside surface films, 23 Overblow, 100 Owens Corning, 130 Owens-Illinois, 4 Ozone layer, 187 Ozone-depleting substances (ODS), 187
Paints, 262-263 additives, 289-290 as vapor retarder, 40 ParPac system, 93 Partnership for Advanced Technology in Housing (PATH), 294
Payback period (foundations), 54 PCMs (see Phase-change materials)
PEL (permissible exposure level), 370
Penetrational plan, 273, 275 Pennsylvania, 66 PEPs (powder evacuated panels), 382
Perlite, 7, 110-111, 226, 383 properties of, 226 R-value of, 110-111, 226 Perm ratings, 39-40, 42 Perm (unit), 39 Permeability, 77-78, 400 Permeance, 39 Permissible exposure level (PEL), 370
Phase-change materials (PCMs), 387-390 phase-change attic insulation, 388-390
phase-change gypsum wallboard, 388-390 properties of, 387 Phenolic foam, 228 properties of, 197, 228 R-value of, 228 Philco-York, 6 PIMA (Polyisocyanurate
Insulation Manufacturers Association), 225 Piping:
hot water, 417 HVAC, 416
PIR (polyisocyanurate foam), 221
PISE (Pneumatically Impacted Stabilized Earth), 282 Plastic: cellular, 185 foam, plastic, 185 Plastic fiber insulation, 148, 390-391 Pliny, 3, 352
Pneumatically Impacted
Stabilized Earth (PISE),282 Polyethylene vapor retarders, 40 Polyiso, 222 Polyiso foam, 221 Polyisocyanurate, 222-226 environmental considerations with, 225
fire resistance of, 225-226 limitations of, 225 properties of, 222-224 R-value of, 224-225 Polyisocyanurate foam (PIR), 221
Polyisocyanurate Insulation Manufacturers Association (PIMA), 225 Polysteel, 320-322, 326 Polystyrene beads, expanded, 112
Polyurethane (PUR), 221-222 Post and beam style, 340 Postindustrial recycling, 147 Posttensioning, 339 Poured concrete walls, 47 Powder evacuated panels (PEPs), 382 Precompressing, 339 Preferred Foam Products, 196 Protective coatings (walls), 55 Psychrometer, 34 Psychrometric chart, 34 Psychrometry, 35 PUR (see Polyurethane)
“Purple Book,” 355 Purpose of thermal insulation, 53
Quick reference insulation charts, 397-398
Radiant barriers, 246, 250-258 in attic locations, 252-256 cost of, 257-258 fire ratings of, 257
Radiant barriers (Cont.): installation of, 251-256 limitations of, 256-257 properties of, 250-251 R-value of, 250-251 Radiation, 22-23, 245-250 Radio waves, 245 Radon gas, 144 Rain-screen system, 55, 231 Rammed earth, 270, 280-282 limitations of, 282 properties of, 281 stabilized, 270
Rcc (center-of-cavity R-value), 28 R-Control Insulated Concrete Forms, 319-320, 321, 324, 326
Rcw (clear-wall R-value), 28 RECD (Rural Economic and Community Development), 65
Recessed lights, 45 Reference sources, 426-428 Reflectance (reflectivity), 23, 250 Reflective insulation, 5, 246-247, 258-264 board/paper products, 260-261
foil-faced polyethylene insulation, 258-259 low-E glass, 263 paints as, 262-263, 287-290 properties of, 258 R-value of, 260 Sailshades, 263-264 standards for, 261-262 Relative humidity, 34-35 Renovations, 46 Resin Technology Company, 196 Respiratory irritation: fiberglass, 99, 128, 176 mineral wool, 109, 146-147 wet spray rock wool/slag wool, 180
Reynolds Wrap, 247 Rhode Island, 66 Rigid board insulation, 6, 207-238
cellular glass, 228 composite board insulation,
228- 229
compressed straw panels,
229- 230
contoured foam underlay – ment, 229
expanded polystyrene, 209-214 environmental
considerations with, 214
limitations of, 214 properties of, 210-212 R-value of, 212-214 exterior insulation and finish systems, 230-238 installation of, 238 legal history, 232, 235, 236 limitations of, 237-238 properties of, 230-236 extruded polystyrene, 215-222
cold spots/streaking with, 221
environmental
considerations with, 219
fire resistance of, 219 installation of, 219-220 limitations of, 219 properties of, 215-218 R-value of, 219 mineral fiber, 227 perlite, 226 phenolic foam, 228 polyisocyanurate, 222-226 environmental
considerations with, 225
fire resistance of, 225-226
Rigid board insulation,
polyisocyanurate (Cont.): limitations of, 225 properties of, 222-224 R-value of, 224-225 polyurethane, 221-222 wood fiber, 226-227 Rock wool, 4, 6, 82, 96, 105-110, 144-147, 177-181. (see also Wet spray rock wool/slag wool)
Romans, ancient, 3 Roof plate, 336, 338 Roofs, vapor retarders in, 44 Rural Economic and
Community Development (RECD), 65
R-value, stable (stabilized), 212 R-Value Rule, 69 R-value(s), 24-28 AAB Blue Maxx, 321-322 aerogels, 380 air, 408 Air Krete, 192 attics, 57
basement walls, 55 Blow-In-Blanket Dry System, 169-170
Blow-In-Blanket System,
170, 172
calculations of, 409 cellulose, 83, 90, 161, 162 center-of-cavity, 28 ceramic coatings, 288 clear-wall, 28
of common building materials, 406-407
contoured foam underlay – ment, 229
cotton insulation, 149 definition of, 24 and density, 26-27 expanded polystyrene, 212-214
extruded polystyrene, 219
R-value(s) (Cont.):
factors affecting, 25-28 fiberglass, 97, 122-124 floors, 57 Icynene, 190
information regarding, 24 insulating concrete formwork, 321-323 low-E glass, 263 measurement of, 24 mineral fiber, 227 mineral wool, 107 paint additives, 290 perlite, 110-111, 226 phenolic foam, 228 polyisocyanurate, 224-225 Polysteel, 321 radiant barriers, 250-251 R-Control Insulated Concrete Form, 321 recommended, 405 reflective insulation, 260 Sailshades, 264 slab-on-grade foundations, 56 SmartBlock, 321 spray polyurethane foam,
194
steady-state, 24 straw bale, 332-333 structural insulated panels, 302-305
superinsulation, 59 and temperature, 25 and thickness, 25-26 tripolymer foam, 198 vacuum insulation panels, 383-384
Vermiculite, 111-112 walls, 57
wet spray cellulose, 161, 162 wet spray rock wool/slag wool, 179 whole-wall, 28 wood fiber, 227 Rww (whole-wall R-value), 28
Safety issues, 79. {see also Health issues)
Sailshades, 263-264 Sandwich panels, 293 SBCCI {see Southern Building Code Congress International)
Scientific Certification Systems (SCS), 130 Sea grass, 4
Sensible (ambient) temperature, 35
Settling (loose-fill insulation), 77 Shavings, wood, 112 Shivering, 14 Sidewalls:
cellulose loose-fill insulation, 91-93
fiberglass, 104, 105, 124, 136-138 Silica, 383
SIPA (Structural Insulated Panel Association), 294 SIPs {see Structural insulated panels)
Skin, 14 Skin irritation: fiberglass, 98-99, 129, 177 mineral wool, 108-109, 146 wet spray rock wool/slag wool, 180
Slab-on-grade foundations, 56 Slag wool, 6, 105-110, 144-147, 177-181. {see also Wet spray rock wool/slag wool) SmartBlock, 320, 321, 326 Software, 67, 68 Sound transmission class (STC), 322 South Carolina, 66 South Dakota, 66 Southern Building Code Congress International (SBCCI), 64-65, 323 Southface Energy Institute, 40
SPF (see Spray polyurethane foam)
Spray polyurethane foam (SPF), 186, 193 cost of, 196 fire resistance of, 195 limitations of, 195 properties of, 194 R-value of, 194 Sprayed-in-place insulation, 155-181
Blow-In-Blanket System, 168-173
fire resistance of, 171 installation of, 171, 173 limitations of, 171 properties of, 170 R-value of, 170, 172 cellulose, wet spray, 157-168 environmental
considerations with, 163
fire resistance of, 163 health considerations with, 162
installation of, 163-168 limitations of, 161 properties of, 158 R-value of, 161, 162 standards for, 158-161 fiberglass, dimensionally stable, 173-177 environmental
considerations with, 174-177
fire resistance of, 174 health considerations of, 176-177
installation of, 174-176 limitations of, 173-174 properties of, 173 limitations of, 156 rock wool/slag wool, wet spray, 177-181 fire resistance of, 180
Sprayed-in-place insulation, rock wool/slag wool, wet spray (Cont.)
health considerations with, 179-180
installation of, 180-181 limitations of, 179 properties of, 178 R-value of, 179 spray-on-fiberglass, 168 Spray-on-fiberglass, 168 Stabilized rammed earth, 270 Stable (stabilized) R-value,
212, 224
Standard Building Code, 65 Standard Practice for
Installation of Cellulosic and Mineral Fiber Loose – Fill Thermal Insulation, 82 Standards (see Codes and standards)
STC (sound transmission class), 322
Steady-state R-value, 24 Steam, 34 Steaming, 36 Stramit, 229 Straw, 4
Straw bale, 326-345 availability of, 345 environmental considerations with, 344
fire resistance of, 344-345 history of, 328-329 in-fill system, 339-341 installation of, 334-342 laid flat, 334 laid on edge, 334 limitations of, 343-344 mortar bale system, 341-342 Nebraska style of, 334-339 properties of, 329, 331-332 R-value of, 332-333 selection guidelines for, 333-334
Straw bale (Cont): straw-clay building, 334 structural considerations/ guidelines for, 342 Straw bale construction, 5,
293
Straw-clay building, 334 Stressed skins, 293 Stress-skin panels, 293 Structural bale, 334 Structural foam panels, 293 Structural Insulated Panel Association (SIPA), 294 Structural insulated panels (SIPs), 208, 215, 293-317 connections/joints, 310-313 and earthquakes, 302 electrical/plumbing, 313, 315-317
environmental considerations with, 305-307 fire resistance of, 301-302 installation of, 307-316 manufacture of, 299 material properties of, 299-301
openings, 313-314 properties of, 294-301 R-value of, 302-305 Structural insulating board, 226,364-366 installation of, 366 properties of, 365-366 Structural vapor diffusion retarders, 40 “Stud scrubber,” 158, 166 Styrofoam, 7, 215, 296 Sulfite screenings, 6 SuperGreen, 196 Superinsulation, 59 Surface films, 23 “Survival blanket,” 247 SVFs (see Synthetic vitreous fibers)
Sweating, 14, 36
Synthetic stucco, 230 Synthetic vitreous fibers
(SVFs), 101-102, 106, 119, 147, 174, 177, 181
TechShield, 260 Temperature:
and relative humidity, 35 and R-value, 25 Tennessee, 66 Termites, 55 Texas, 66
Thermal comfort (see Comfort, thermal)
Thermal drift, 212 Thermal envelope, 36, 53. (see also Building envelope) Thermal-lag effect, 290 Thermoregulation, 13-15 Thickness effect, 25-26 Toxic Substances Control Act (TSCA), 361
Tripolymer foam, 197-210 environmental considerations with, 200
fire resistance of, 200 installation of, 200-201 limitations of, 198-200 properties of, 198 R-value of, 198 TSCA (Toxic Substances Control Act), 361
UBCs (see Uniform Building Codes)
UFFI (see Urea formaldehyde foam insulation)
UL (Underwriter’s Laboratory), 301
UltraFit DS, 173 Ultraviolet radiation (UVB), 187, 246
Underground housing, 272 Underwriter’s Laboratory (UL), 301
Uniform Building Codes (UBCs), 65, 323 United States Federal Trade Commission’s Labeling and Advertising of Home Insulation Rule, 100 Urea formaldehyde foam insulation (UFFI), 8, 60, 186, 366-371 as carcinogen, 368, 370 health considerations with, 370-371
history of, 366-371 identification of, 369 installation of, 369-370 U. S. Department of Energy (DOE), 40, 55, 64-65, 68, 250, 297
U. S. Department of Housing and Urban Development (HUD), 59, 65 Utah, 66
U-value (U-factor), 23-24, 67, 409
UVB (see Ultraviolet radiation)
Vacuum insulation panels (VIPs), 381-385 cost of, 384 installation of, 384 limitations of, 384-385 properties of, 382-383 R-value of, 383-384 Vapor barriers, 33
fiberglass batts/rolls as, 121, 142
paints as, 40 Vapor diffusion, 34, 37 Vapor diffusion retarders, 33, 40 Vapor retarders, 33-47
cellulose, wet spray, 158, 167 cellulose loose-fill insulation, 93-94
definition of, 33 and dew point, 36
Vapor retarders (Cont.): fiberglass batts/rolls, 131,
143
history of, 38-39 Icynene, 190 installation of, 46-47 location of, 41-46 and migration of water vapor/moisture, 34 and moisture problems, 36-38 and perm ratings, 39-40 and relative humidity, 34-35 types of, 40
wet spray cellulose, 158, 167 Vapor-pressure differential, 41 “Vent skin,” 255-256 Vermiculite, 111-112 Vermont, 66
VIPs (see Vacuum insulation panels)
Virginia, 66 Visible light, 246 Voids, 54, 79
W. R. Grace Company, 111-112, 354
Wallboard, 76-77, 83 Walls, 57 basement, 54-56 knee, 58
thermal lag time with, 410 vapor retarders in, 47 whole-wall systems, 28 Warm climates, 42 Washington, D. C., 66 Washington State, 66 Water heaters, 418 Water table, 56 Water vapor, 34, 39, 77-78 Water-blown polyurethane, 196-197
Water-managed, 231 Water-stabilized cellulose, 157 Wattle and daub, 270 Weathermaker, 6
Weight:
of cellulose, 83 of loose-fill insulation,
76-77, 83
of mineral wool, 107 West Virginia, 66 Wet spray cellulose, 157-168 application of, 164-167 environmental considerations with, 163
fire resistance of, 163 health considerations with, 162
installation of, 163-168 installation precautions/ limitations, 167-168 limitations of, 161 and paint, 158 properties of, 158 recycling of, 166 R-value of, 161, 162 standards for, 158-161 vapor retarder, 167 and vapor retarders, 158 and vinyl wallcoverings, 158 Wet spray rock wool/slag wool: as carcinogen, 179-180 eye irritation, 180 fire resistance of, 180 health considerations with, 179-180
Wet spray rock wool/slag wool 0Cont.):
installation of, 180-181 limitations of, 179 properties of, 178 respiratory irritation, 180 R-value of, 179 skin irritation from, 180 Wet-bulb temperature, 34 Whole-wall R-value (Rww),
28
Whole-wall systems, 28 Willis Carrier, 6 Wisconsin, 66 Wood fiber, 226-227 properties of, 226-227 R-value of, 227 Wood shavings, 5, 112 World War II, 7 Wyoming, 66
XEPS (extruded expanded polystyrene), 209 XPS (see Extruded polystyrene)
X-rays, 246
York, 6
Zonolite, 111-112, 354 Zostera marina, 4
[1] As air warms, its ability to hold a greater quantity of water vapor
increases.
[2] As air cools, its capacity to retain moisture decreases.
For example, air at 68°F (20°C) with 0.216 oz of water (H20) per pound of air (14.8 g H20/kg air) has a 100 percent relative humidity. The same air at 59°F (15°C) reaches 100 percent relative humidity with only 0.156 oz of water per pound of air (10.7 g H20/kg air). The colder air loses the capacity to hold about 28 percent of the previous temperature’s airborne moisture. This moisture will condense on the first cold surface it encounters. If this surface is within an exterior wall cavity, for instance, wet insulation and framing may be an early result.3
When the relative humidity of air approaches about 92 to 98 percent, a drop in temperature of as little as one degree, or the addition of a small amount of water vapor, will cause the vapor to condense and precipitate from the air. In nature, this is known as rain, sleet, or snow.
[4] Moisture should be removed by drainage, venting, or isolating moisture-generating sources.
[5] Moist air should be kept away from cold surfaces within walls, floors, or roof by means of a vapor barrier.
[6] Sufficient insulation should be used on the cold side of assemblies to keep critical surfaces warmer than the dew point temperature.
[7] Heaters and recessed light fixtures must not be covered by the insulation unless the fixture has a direct contact rating. It is recommended that a minimum of 3" of airspace be maintained between any fixtures and the blocking.
[8] Cold air returns and combustion air intakes for hot air furnaces must not be blocked or insulation be installed in a manner that would allow it to be drawn into the system.
[9] Insulation must not be in contact with chimneys or flues. A minimum of 3" of airspace must be maintained, with blocking used to retain the insulation.
[10] The homeowner should be advised that in tightly constructed homes or when insulating existing homes that have fuel-fired heating systems within the living area or basement, an air duct must be installed between the furnace room and a well – ventilated outside area to provide combustion air. A local heating contractor should be contacted for proper duct size and installation.
[11] The homeowner should be advised that the relative humidity within the living area should be kept below 40 percent when outside temperatures fall below 32°F (0°C).
[12] Do not touch or disturb asbestos material on walls, ceilings, pipes, or boilers.
[13] Do not allow children to play near pipes or furnaces that have friable asbestos insulation around them. Just tossing a ball against asbestos material could release many invisible fibers.
[14] Do not let the dog or cat run free in a basement with asbestos materials. The animal can pick up asbestos fibers on its fur and shake them off in other areas of the home.
[15] Do not dust, sweep, or vacuum debris you think contains asbestos. (Remember: A regular vacuum cleaner allows asbestos fibers to pass right through it and reenter the room.)
[16] Do not hang plants or other things from ceilings that may contain asbestos.
[17] Do not tack or hammer nails into walls made from asbestos.
[18] Do not allow curtain rods or room dividers hanging on ceiling tracks to bump or brush into walls or ceilings.